the dagger. Specific Biblical reference is made to sheaths worn by Goliath, Joab, and the apostle Peter. (1 Sam. 17:51; 2 Sam. 20:8; John 18:11) Second Samuel 20:8 allows for the possibility that Joab deliberately adjusted his sword so that it fell from its sheath and then merely held the weapon in his hand instead of sheathing it once again. Unsuspecting Amasa perhaps thought it had fallen accidentally, and he was unconcerned. That proved fatal.

Jesus’ words at Luke 22:36, “let the one having no sword sell his outer garment and buy one,” have been explained by some as indicating that his disciples were about to enter into a hazardous life. It is true that the country of Palestine was even then infested with robbers as well as wild beasts. Paul spoke of experiencing “dangers from highwaymen” and “dangers in the wilderness” in his travels there and in other surrounding lands (2 Cor. 11:26), although there is nothing to show that he relied upon a sword to frighten off would-be attackers. The fact that two swords were available among the disciples on that night of Jesus’ betrayal, therefore, was certainly not unusual for those times (Luke 22:38), and there is evidence that for Galileans in particular it was not uncommon to carry arms. (Josephus, Wars of the Jews, Book III, chap. III, par. 2) Additionally, it should be realized that a sword can be utilitarian, serving similarly to an ax or a large knife when necessary.

However, in view of the subsequent Christian teaching regarding weapons, showing that the “weapons of our warfare are not fleshly” but spiritual, it seems very probable that Christ was desirous of having a sword available among his followers on that night in order to demonstrate clearly that, though they would come into circumstances that could easily provoke armed resistance, he did not intend to resort to the sword but would give himself up voluntarily in harmony with God’s will. (2 Cor. 10:4) Thus, when Peter did react and try to put up armed resistance, lopping off the ear of Malchus, Jesus ordered him: “Return your sword to its place, for all those who take the sword will perish by the sword.” (Matt. 26:52; John 18:10, 11) Certainly, Peter’s sword and the other one at hand would have availed little against such a large group of armed men, and by trying to use them they would undoubtedly have ‘perished by the sword.’ (Matt. 26:47) More importantly, such attempted delivery of Jesus would have failed, being completely contrary to Jehovah God’s purpose. (Matt. 26:53, 54) As it was, later that day Jesus could plainly state to Pilate: “If my kingdom were part of this world, my attendants would have fought that I should not be delivered up to the Jews. But, as it is, my kingdom is not from this source.”—John 18:36

The Greek word maʹkhai·ra is usually used for the sword in the Christian Scriptures (Matt. 26:47), though hrom·phaiʹa, denoting a large, broad sword, is also employed. (Rev. 1:16) In both the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures the sword is used in a literal and a figurative sense. When employed figuratively, it may symbolize war (Lev. 26:25; Ezek. 7:15), divisions (Matt. 10:34, 35), wicked speech (Ps. 55:21; 59:7), sharp words thoughtlessly spoken (Prov. 12:18), executional authority (Rom. 13:4), divine judgment (Deut. 32:41; Isa. 34:5, 6), God’s protection (Deut. 33:29), and so forth. Whereas drawing the sword denotes war and destruction (Lev. 26:33; Ezek. 21:3, 4), sheathing it indicates peace.—Jer. 47:6.

The word of God is said to be “sharper than any two-edged sword.” (Heb. 4:12) Christian spiritual armor includes “the sword of the spirit, that is, God’s word.” (Eph. 6:17) A “great sword” was given to the second horseman of the Apocalypse, who was foretold to take peace away from the earth. (Rev. 6:3, 4; compare Matthew 24:7.) According to the apocalyptic vision, from the mouth of the one called “Faithful and True,” who wages righteous war and is also named “The Word of God,” “there protrudes a sharp long sword, that he may strike the nations with it.” (Rev. 19:11-15; compare Psalm 45:3-5.) As for persons taught by Jehovah, even now they “beat their swords into plowshares,” employing resources formerly used in war for purposes of peace.—Mic. 4:3.

WAR CLUB

The “war club” was evidently a heavy club or mace, sometimes studded with metal. At Proverbs 25:18 a false witness is likened to a “war club” (“maul,” AV), a sword and an arrow. The same Hebrew word (me·phitsʹ, literally meaning “shatterer, disperser”) may also apply to a hammer, such as that used by a coppersmith, and to a club carried by shepherds in the Middle East today.

The Hebrew word map·petsʹ, derived from another root, appears at Jeremiah 51:20 and is rendered “club” (“battle ax,” AV). There Nebuchadnezzar in particular, as head of the Babylonian forces, is referred to as a “club” and as war weapons whereby God would “dash nations to pieces” and “bring kingdoms to ruin.” A similar Hebrew word (map·patsʹ) is employed at Ezekiel 9:2, where divinely appointed executioners are said to be equipped with a “weapon for smashing.”

Jehovah told Job that a club has been regarded as mere stubble by Leviathan. (Job 41:29) And the club (Gr., xyʹlon) was among the weapons carried by those who came to arrest Jesus Christ in the Garden of Gethsemane.—Matt. 26:47, 55; Mark 14:43, 48; Luke 22:52.

In addition, there was the more elaborate mace that generally consisted of a heavy socketed stone or metal head into which a relatively short handle was fitted. Sometimes the handle was bound with cord where it was gripped, probably to prevent its slipping from the wielder’s grasp. The mace was used to beat and smash during hand-to-hand combat. Its head might be pear- or saucer-shaped, or spherical. With the development and use of the helmet and other armor, the mace nearly disappeared from the battlefield.

The mace is frequently represented on Egyptian monuments. One type consisted of a wooden handle to which a bronze ball was attached. Egyptian maces were about two and a half feet (c. 0.8 meter) long and were carried by the heavy-armed infantry and charioteers. Egyptian heavy- and light-armed troops and archers also used a curved stick, which was probably hurled at the enemy or employed in hand-to-hand fighting. This device is represented on both Egyptian and Assyrian monuments. According to Herodotus (Book VII, sec. 63), Assyrians in Xerxes’ army “had wooden clubs knotted with iron.”

Maceheads of various kinds have been discovered. For example, excavations near Beer-sheba have yielded round copper maceheads considered to be of the time before Abraham. Pear-shaped and fluted Mesopotamian limestone maceheads, held to be of the same period, have also been found.

In smashing enemy nations the Messianic king was foretold to wield a figurative “iron scepter” with telling effect.—Ps. 2:6-9; compare Revelation 19:15.

ARMY

A large body of men organized and trained for warfare on land. From the time of Abraham, Jehovah’s pre-Christian servants engaged in armed warfare. After the Elamite Chedorlaomer and his allies carried off Abraham’s nephew Lot and his household, Abraham mustered his army of “trained men, three hundred and eighteen slaves,” and with his neighboring confederates went in pursuit up to Dan, about 120 miles (193 kilometers) N. He then divided the forces and attacked by night, a strategy repeatedly employed in Biblical times.—Gen. 14:13-16.

ISRAELITE

The nation of Israel, over 400 years later, left Egypt in great haste, but in well-organized “battle formation,” possibly like a five-part army composed of a main body with vanguard, rear guard and two wings. (Ex. 6:26; 13:18) The Egyptian army in pursuit consisted of “six hundred chosen chariots and all the other chariots of Egypt.” Each chariot usually carried three men, one to manage the horses and two to fight, likely archers, since the bow was the principal offensive weapon of the Egyptians. The cavalry accompanied them. (Ex. 14:7, 9, 17) According to Josephus’ claim, the Egyptian force numbered some 250,000.

Soon after the exodus the Israelites engaged in their first military combat as a freed people. The Amalekites attacked them at Rephidim, in the region of Mount Sinai. At Moses’ direction, Joshua quickly assembled a fighting force. The battle lasted the major part of the day, and in spite of their inexperience in the art of warfare, Jehovah gave Israel the victory.—Ex. 17:8-14.

About a year after the exodus, a count was taken of those eligible for service in the army, males twenty years old and upward. The census totaled 603,550. (Num. 1:1-3, 45, 46) A similar count toward the end of the wilderness journey showed that the army strength had dropped slightly to 601,730. (Num. 26:2, 51) The Levites were exempt from army duty, hence not included in these figures but were numbered separately.—Num. 1:47-49; 3:14-39; 26:57, 62.

Exemptions

Besides the tribe of Levi, the following exemptions from military service were granted: (1) the man who “has built a new house and has not inaugurated it”; (2) “the man that has planted a vineyard and not begun to use it”; (3) “the man that has become engaged to a woman and has not taken her”; (4) the one who marries “should not go out into the army, [but] . . . should continue exempt at his house for one year”; (5) “the man that is fearful and fainthearted.”—Deut. 20:5-8; 24:5.

Army arrangements after conquest of Canaan

After the general settlement in Canaan there was little need for a large standing army; border skirmishes were usually handled by the local tribes involved. When it was necessary to assemble a larger unified fighting force from several tribes, Jehovah raised up judges to take command. The call to arms was accomplished in different ways: trumpet signals, messengers, or tokens were sent to stir the fighting men to action.—Num. 10:9; Judg. 3:27; 6:35; 19:29; 1 Sam. 11:7.

Warriors appear to have furnished their own weapons: swords, spears, lances, darts, slings, bows and arrows. The men generally were responsible for their own foodstuffs; hence Jesse sent provisions for his sons in Saul’s army. (1 Sam. 17:17, 18) There is one case, however, when 10 percent of the volunteers were set aside to procure provisions for the rest.—Judg. 20:10.

Jehovah’s presence in Israel’s camp called for sanctity, ceremonial cleanness on the part of the soldiers. (Deut. 23:9-14) As sexual intercourse made a man unclean until the next day, under the Law, both David and Uriah carefully avoided sex relations while on active duty. (Lev. 15:16-18; 1 Sam. 21:1-6; 2 Sam. 11:6-11) The armies of pagan nations often raped the women of conquered cities, but not so the victorious solders of Israel. Nor were they permitted for a month to marry a captive woman.—Deut. 21:10-13.

Israel’s ultimate victories depended on Jehovah, yet good handling of the army was necessary. This responsibility rested on appointed officers and chiefs over thousands and over hundreds. Priests were assigned to encourage and give direction and purpose to the campaigns. (Num. 31:6, 14; Deut. 20:2-4, 9) During the days of the judges, the one whom Jehovah raised up led the army personally into battle. The judge also planned the tactics and strategy. He deployed his forces in various ways: division into units (usually three), attack by surprise, ambush, frontal assault, securing river fords, and so forth.—Josh. 8:9-22; 10:9; 11:7; Judg. 3:28; 4:13, 14; 7:16; 9:43; 12:5.

Under the monarchy

Not satisfied with the theocratic arrangement under the judges, the people wanted to be “like all the nations,” having a king to “go out before us and fight our battles.” (1 Sam. 8:20) Samuel, however, warned them that such a king would not fight singlehanded; he would take their sons “and put them as his in his chariots and among his horsemen, and some will have to run before his chariots.” (1 Sam. 8:11, 12; see RUNNERS.) The king was commander in chief, with the chief of the army second in authority.—1 Sam. 14:50.

The size and strength of Saul’s army varied according to the demands. On one occasion he selected 3,000 men, 1,000 of whom were under the command of his son Jonathan. (1 Sam. 13:2) For another exploit 330,000 were assembled. (1 Sam. 11:8) But compared with the highly mechanized armies of the Philistines, who were capable of mustering 30,000 chariots, 6,000 horsemen and “people like the grains of sand . . . for multitude,” as they did at Michmash, Israel appeared ill equipped. “It happened on the day of battle that not a sword or a spear was found in the hand of any of the people,” except Saul and Jonathan.—1 Sam. 13:5, 22.

During the reign of David the army of Israel was greatly improved, both in size and efficiency. There were some 332,500 men equipped for war that came to Hebron and turned the kingship of Saul over to David. (1 Chron. 12:23-38) Non-Israelites also served in David’s army.—2 Sam. 15:18; 20:7.

David retained many of the older organizational plans of the army, such as holding the position of commander in chief himself, appointing field commanders like Joab, Abner and Amasa, and having under them the heads over thousands and over hundreds. (2 Sam. 18:1; 1 Ki. 2:32; 1 Chron. 13:1; 18:15) However, David instituted some novel plans of his own. A system of monthly rotation provided twelve groups of 24,000 (a total of 288,000), so that a soldier normally served only one month a year. (1 Chron. 27:1-15) This does not mean that all 24,000 for one month came from the same tribe, but, rather, each tribe furnished its share of the monthly quota throughout the year.

Cavalry and chariot units

A strong force in ancient armies was the chariots, mobile firing platforms highly prized by the Babylonians, Assyrians and Egyptians for their speed and maneuverability. They thus became fitting symbols of military power of the leading world empires. Under David, Israel’s greatest military commander, the army in its entirety was composed of the foot soldier with his hand weapons—sword, spear, bow or sling. David must have remembered that Jehovah counseled against relying on the horse for victory (Deut. 17:16; 20:1); that Pharaoh’s horses and chariots were “pitched into the sea” by Jehovah (Ex. 15:1, 4); and that Jehovah opened the floodgates of heaven on Sisera’s “nine hundred war chariots with iron scythes” so that “the torrent of Kishon washed” the enemy away.—Judg. 4:3; 5:21.

Therefore, as Joshua hamstrung captured horses and burned enemy chariots, so likewise David did with horses seized from Hadadezer king of Zobah. He hamstrung all except a hundred of the many