Even before the mighty Inca Empire came on the scene, Bolivia had a deep-rooted cultural and religious heritage. Later, the Spanish conquerors brought Catholicism, mixing it in with pagan customs. As a result, the Virgin Mary and various Catholic “saints” came to be revered alongside Pacha Mama, the goddess of the earth​—who is honored by sacrifices of dried fetuses of llamas or sheep, along with plenty of beer, chicha (corn liquor) or cane alcohol, to the accompaniment of superstitious rites and drunken parties. For both the Aymara and Quechua peoples of Bolivia, Pacha Mama presides over all the affairs of life, including birth, marriage, the drinking of liquor and the chewing of coca.

In Oruro, another major mining center on the treeless Altiplano, the famous diablada (devil dance) has given rise to a whole craft industry of costumes and hideous devil masks for the dancers. In recent years the festival has become a great tourist attraction, corresponding to Christendom’s Carnival celebration. The entire ceremony is directed to the virgen del socavón (virgin of the mines). The dance of the devils contains rites that are carried out at the Church of the Socavón, where homage is paid to Mary by means of special Masses.