ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES OF NOTABLE FORTIFICATIONS

Following up the building operations of his father David, King Solomon was outstanding for his construction works. Besides building the magnificent temple of Jehovah at Jerusalem, he strengthened Jerusalem’s walls and built extensive fortifications at Hazor, Megiddo and Gezer. Archaeologists were guided in their excavation of these fortifications by the Bible’s statement at 1 Kings 9:15: “Now this is the account of those conscripted for forced labor that King Solomon levied to build the house of Jehovah and his own house and the Mound and the wall of Jerusalem and Hazor and Megiddo and Gezer.” They found that the gates of these three last-named cities were all built to a single unique plan, each being fifty-six feet (17 meters) wide, with an entrance flanked on both sides by square towers and leading into a vestibule sixty-six feet (20 meters) long, with three chambers on each side. They were somewhat similar to the description of the gates of Ezekiel’s visionary temple. (Ezek. 40:5-16) Solomon’s son Rehoboam is also credited with much building. This included, besides reinforcing the fortified places, the storage of food supplies in them.—2 Chron. 11:5-10.

Immediately above casemate walls built by Solomon at Megiddo and Hazor massive walls had been constructed, possibly built by Ahab. These were more thickly and strongly built, doubtless because of the heavy Assyrian battering rams in use during that later period. Other kings of Israel and Judah noted for their construction works are Jeroboam, who rebuilt Shechem and Penuel; Baasha, who began to build Ramah “to allow no one to go out or come in to Asa the king of Judah” (1 Ki. 15:17); Asa, who used stones and timbers from Ramah in building operations in Geba and Mizpah; Omri the builder of Samaria, the capital of the northern kingdom; Uzziah (Azariah) the rebuilder of Elath (Eloth) and builder of towers in the wilderness; and Jotham, who built fortified places and towers.—1 Ki. 12:25; 15:22, 23; 16:23, 24; 2 Ki. 14:21, 22; 2 Chron. 26:1, 2, 9, 10; 27:1, 4.

Of Uzziah it is said: “He made in Jerusalem engines of war, the invention of engineers, that they might come to be upon the towers and upon the corners, to shoot arrows and great stones.” (2 Chron. 26:15) Just what these engines of war were is not understood. Archaeologists have discovered sculptured reliefs of Sennacherib’s assault on the city of Lachish depicting a defensive innovation that some would attribute to Uzziah. These reliefs show that upon the towers and on the corners of the walls of Lachish wooden structures holding round shields were built above the crenelated parapets. This was a great advantage for the defenders of a city in that they now could stand to full height, with both hands free to shoot arrows and to sling and throw stones at the besiegers, their bodies being much better protected than previously, when they had to expose themselves to shoot, and then dodge behind the merlons of the crenelated walls.

ARCHAEOLOGICAL DISCOVERIES OF AQUEDUCTS

The builders of the Megiddo fortifications used simple, yet ingenious way to get water into the city. The source of water for the city was a well in a natural cave at the western foot of the mound on which Megiddo was built. To get water into the city they sent a vertical shaft ninety-eight feet (30 meters) deep, seventy-two feet (22 meters) of this distance through solid rock, which brought them to the level of the well. From this level they cut a horizontal tunnel with a slight gradient for a distance of 220 feet (67 meters) to the well. The slight slope from the well to the bottom of the shaft allowed the water to flow into the city by gravity. The well was sealed from the outside by a thick wall.

An amazing construction requiring superb engineering skill was accomplished by Hezekiah when he sealed up the course of the water flowing from Gihon and cut a channel or conduit about 1,750 feet (1,200 cubits or 533 meters) to bring water into Jerusalem, thereby enabling it to withstand a long siege.—2 Chron. 32:30.

Often cisterns, both public and individual, were built inside the city so as to have a water supply during times of siege. On the monument (now located in the Louvre of Paris) erected at Dibon, in Moab, by Mesha the king of Moab, we find the inscription “I also built its gates and I built its towers and I built the king’s house, and I made both of its reservoirs for water inside the town. And there was no cistern inside the town even at the acropolis, so I said to all the people, ‘Let each of you make a cistern for himself in his house.’”

SYMBOLIC USES

Since the tower or citadel of the fortified city was its last stronghold and the towers in the wilderness were the safest places of refuge for miles around, we can see the appropriateness of Proverbs 18:10: “The name of Jehovah is a strong tower. Into it the righteous runs and is given protection.” Also significant are the expressions of David: “Jehovah is my crag and my stronghold and the Provider of escape for me.” (2 Sam. 22:2) “Become to me a rock fortress into which to enter constantly. You must command to save me, for you are my crag and my stronghold.” (Ps. 71:3) This would be especially meaningful to Jews who would look up at the great stronghold of Jerusalem situated on an elevation higher than nearly any other major capital city in human history, with its mighty walls of defense. It also gives meaning to God’s words through the prophet Zechariah, when Jehovah speaks of himself as “a wall of fire all around” Jerusalem. It gives his people encouraging assurance that, while walls of stone can be broken down, Jehovah himself is really the defense of his servants.—Ps. 48:11-13; Zech. 2:4, 5; see GATE, GATEWAY.

FORTUNATUS

(For·tu·naʹtus) [fortunate].

One of the mature members of the congregation in Corinth who, together with Stephanas and Achaicus, visited Paul at Ephesus. (1 Cor. 16:8, 17, 18) From these men Paul may have learned of the disturbing conditions about which he wrote, and they were possibly the ones who delivered Paul’s first canonical letter to the Corinthians.—1 Cor. 1:11; 5:1; 11:18.

FORUM

(foʹrum).

The Roman forum was a large, open and often rectangular place, corresponding to the Greek a·go·raʹ (marketplace). Although forums were usually paved, they were not thoroughfares. Originally just an open place where people congregated on market days and for public events, the forum later was surrounded by public buildings, shops, colonnades and temples, thus becoming a center of legal, political and commercial business. At first there was only one forum in each city, and this not only served as a place for carrying out business transactions, but was also the scene for athletic games, theatrical performances and similar events. However, as a result a of the growth of the city of Rome and its commerce, other judicial and mercantile forums came into existence, including separate fish, vegetable, wine, bread and cattle markets. But this was not generally so in other Roman cities. In planning new cities the forum was situated in the center and the two main streets crossed one another near the forum but not through it. The word “forum” often appears as part of the name of Roman market towns, as in Appii Forum.

In the first century C.E. forums could be found in all Graeco-Roman cities. At Philippi, Paul and Silas were dragged before the magistrates in the marketplace or forum and charged with disturbing the city and publishing unlawful customs. (Acts 16:19-21; compare NW, 1950 ed., ftn.) Later, at Athens, Paul preached in the marketplace, and here the Epicurean and Stoic philosophers laid hold of him and brought him to the Areopagus. (Acts 17:16-19) While en route from Puteoli to Rome, the apostle Paul was met by his Christian brothers at Appii Forum or Market Place of Appius, located forty-three Roman miles (39.6 statute miles; 63.6 kilometers) SE of Rome on the Appian Way. (Acts 28:13-15) The Forum of Appius, according to Horace, was the customary stopping place at the end of the first day’s journey from Rome, and this post station reportedly was filled with boatmen and dishonest innkeepers.

FOUNDATION

The base or substructure on which a building is erected, and which serves to distribute the weight of the superstructure equally over the ground. Since the strength and permanence of a building depends largely on the strength of its foundation, great care must be exercised in laying the foundation. Good foundations were vital in Palestine to withstand, not only the heavy rains, winds and floods, but also earthquakes, as this region is an earthquake area.

The Master Builder Jehovah, in answering Job out of the windstorm, compared the literal earth to a building. (Job 38:4-7) Though the earth hangs upon nothing, it has, as it were, durable foundations that will not be made to totter, for the unchangeable laws governing the universe hold it firmly in place, and God’s purpose toward the earth has remained unchanged. (Job 26:7; 38:33; Ps. 104:5; Mal. 3:6) On the other hand, injustice and disobedience to God’s law in effect tear down the foundations that give stability to the land, causing the foundations of the figurative earth (the people and their established systems) to totter.—Psalm 82; 11:3; Prov. 29:4.

The laying of the foundations of the earth is not to be confused with the “founding of the world.” From Jesus’ words at Luke 11:48-51, it is evident that Abel lived at the founding of the world, which has reference to mankind. The planet Earth’s foundations had long previously been laid.—See ABEL No. 1; WORLD.

The laying of a foundation was apparently a time for joy. At the ‘founding of the earth’ the angels shouted in applause. Also, great rejoicing attended the laying of the foundation of Zerubbabel’s temple, although those who had seen the glory of the former temple gave way to weeping.—Job 38:4, 6, 7; Ezra 3:10-13.

As Solomon had used large, expensive hewn stones for the foundation of the temple, so the foundation cornerstone of the spiritual temple, Jesus Christ, and the apostles and prophets, who constitute the foundation thereof, are precious with God. Most appropriately, the twelve symbolic foundation stones of the New Jerusalem, built on the primary foundation Jesus Christ and bearing the names of the twelve apostles of the Lamb, are precious stones.—1 Ki. 5:17; 1 Pet. 2:4-6; Eph. 2:19, 20; Rev. 21:14, 19, 20.

Jesus Christ is the sure, unshakable foundation, and all built upon this foundation are selected by Jehovah. None can deceive Him and be built on the foundation if such one carries on unrighteousness. (2 Tim. 2:19) These two principles assure complete righteousness in the city, New Jerusalem, in the light of which “the nations will walk.” (Rev. 21:2, 24) It was this city with real foundations that faithful Abraham awaited as he continued dwelling in tents.—Heb. 11:10.

Jesus, who had in his prehuman existence worked alongside his Father as a Master Worker at the laying of earth’s foundations, fully appreciated the value of a solid foundation, as seen from his illustration of the discreet man who went down deep and laid the foundation for his house on a rock-mass, whereas the foolish man built his house upon the sand and suffered severe loss. (Prov. 8:29, 30; Matt. 7:24-27; Luke 6:47-49) Likewise, in comparing the task of making Christians to a building work, Paul stressed the importance of building with noncombustible materials on the foundation that has been laid, namely, Jesus Christ, so as not to experience loss.—1 Cor. 3:10-15.

Paul also compared certain primary Bible teachings to a foundation, and encouraged the Hebrews, not to become static upon having learned the primary doctrine about the Christ, but to press on to maturity.—Heb. 6:1, 2; see CORNERSTONE; EARTH; HOUSE.

FOUNTAIN GATE

See GATE, GATEWAY.

FOUNTAIN OF THE BIG SNAKE

The Hebrew expression carries the thought of a fountain, spring or well of a land or sea monster, and is variously translated as: the dragon well or fountain (AV, Dy, JB, Le); the jackal’s well (AS, RS); the fountain or well of the Serpent, snake or Big Snake (AT, NW, Ro). The Septuagint, however, reads “the well of fig trees.”

This water source was located along the route Nehemiah took on his first inspection of Jerusalem’s broken-down walls. (Neh. 2:12, 13) Since this name is not found again in the Scriptures, the fountain or well, if elsewhere referred to, must be under a different designation. En-rogel is commonly suggested as its alternate name. This could well be, for though En-rogel is a considerable distance down the Kidron valley, the account simply says that Nehemiah passed “in front of the Fountain,” and this could mean by the corner of the wall facing En-rogel and within sight of, but still some distance from, the fountain.—See EN-ROGEL.

FOUNTAIN, SPRING

Generally, a natural source of water (Ex. 15:27), in contrast to wells and cisterns that were usually dug (Gen. 26:15); also used with reference to a source of something other than water. Since springs were cleared and deepened at times, this may explain why “fountain” and “well” are sometimes used interchangeably for the same water source.—Gen. 16:7, 14; 24:11, 13; John 4:6, 12.

Moses described the Promised Land to the Israelites as a land of “springs and watery deeps issuing forth in the valley plain and in the mountainous region.” (Deut. 8:7) Springs or fountains are plentiful in Palestine, with an average of six or seven for approximately every thirty-nine square miles (c. 100 square kilometers). Because the mountains of Judah and Ephraim are mainly composed of porous rock, the winter rains readily filter down to a great depth. The waters finally reach a waterproof layer, run along it and then reappear as springs on the western side of the Jordan valley and the western bank of the Dead Sea, some even flowing into the Dead Sea underground. Many of the springs that empty directly into the Dead Sea and the lower waters of the Jordan have a high temperature. West of the mountain range the waters emerge as springs along the eastern part of the long seacoast lowlands, though some of the water finds its way underground to the Mediterranean. Some springs, such as those surrounding Jerusalem and Hebron, gush up at or near the very crest of the highlands of Palestine. The numerous springs resulting from the melting snows on the Lebanon and Hermon ranges provide the headwaters of the Litany, the Jordan and the rivers of Damascus.

The importance of springs or fountains becomes apparent from the frequence of town names beginning with “En,” meaning “spring,” “fountain.” (Josh. 15:62; 17:11; 1 Ki. 1:9) Towns and villages were often built near springs, as most of Palestine’s “rivers” are actually torrent valleys that dry up in the summer months. For defensive purposes cities were generally built on elevated sites, and, therefore, the springs were often outside the city walls in the valley below. This made the protection of the water supply vitally important. Conduits were constructed to convey the water from its source right into the city. King Hezekiah built such a conduit to bring the waters of Gihon