4:1), while she likened the shepherd’s eyes to bluegray doves bathing in pools of milk, by this lovely simile evidently representing the darker iris surrounded by the gleaming white of the eye. (5:12) Doves are fond of bathing, preferring to nest near a source of water.

A timid bird, trembling when frightened (Hos. 11:11), the dove in its wild state often nests in valleys (Ezek. 7:16), while the rock dove makes its nest on ledges and in holes of cliffs and rocky gorges. (Song of Sol. 2:14; Jer. 48:28) When domesticated, they fly back to the dovecotes prepared for them, the white undersides of the wings of a large flock of doves giving the appearance of a moving cloud. (Isa. 60:8) Dovecotes, some of considerable size, have been excavated in Palestine.

The dove has strong wings, is able to fly long distances in search of food, and is swift enough to elude most of its enemies. (Ps. 55:6-8) Yet doves are quite trusting of humans and rather easily entrapped or snared with a net. Thus, apostate Ephraim, foolishly placing its confidence first in Egypt and then in Assyria, was likened to a “simple-minded dove,” due to be caught in a net. (Hos. 7:11, 12) Jesus, in warning his disciples against wolflike opposers, counseled them to be, not only “innocent as doves,” but also “cautious as serpents.”—Matt. 10:16.

At the time of Jesus’ baptism and subsequent anointing by God’s holy spirit, that holy spirit was caused to appear “in bodily shape like a dove,” its visible descent upon Jesus perhaps being similar to the fluttering descent of the dove as it approaches its perch. (Luke 3:22; Matt. 3:16; Mark 1:10; John 1:32-34) It was an apt symbol, in view of its use by Noah and also its characteristic ‘innocence.’ Doves were used for sacrificial purposes, as indicated by their being sold by those pursuing commercial activities at the temple in Jerusalem, although the term “doves [Gr., pe·ri·ste·rasʹ]” may here indicate the “turtledoves” or “male pigeons” mentioned in the Mosaic law.—Mark 11:15; John 2:14-16.

IDOLATROUS USE

The religion of ancient Babylon manifests a corrupted utilization of many details relating to the Noachian flood, and so it is not surprising that the dove figured prominently in Babylonian worship. Concerning Semiramis, The Encyclopædia Britannica (1946, Vol. 20, p. 314) states: “Semiramis appears as a goddess, the daughter of the fish-goddess Atargatis, and herself connected with the doves of Ishtar or Astarte [the fertility goddess of the Canaanites].” The dove was anciently worshiped at the city of Ashkelon, a city of the Philistines, who also worshiped Dagon, thought by some to be a fish god. At another onetime Philistine city, Beth-shan, a cult-stand discovered, and considered as of the thirteenth century B.C.E., represents doves as flying out of the windows of a shrine of the Canaanite Ashtoreth (Astarte). The dove also became a symbol associated with the erotic love goddess Venus and by her Greek counterpart, Aphrodite. Such corrupted idolatrous use of the figure of the dove stands in sharp contrast to the Biblical presentation of this gentle, innocent bird as considered above.—See DOVE’S DUNG.

DOVE’S DUNG

[Heb., hharehʹ yoh·nimʹ].

The description of the siege of Samaria by Syrian King Ben-hadad relates that the famine created became so severe that “an ass’s head got to be worth eighty silver pieces, and the fourth of a cab measure of dove’s dung was worth five silver pieces.” (2 Ki. 6:24, 25) The cost of an ass’s head was approximately $38 (if the “silver pieces” were shekels) and the “fourth of a cab measure [about one-half dry pint or .3 of a liter] of dove’s dung” was worth about $2.38. This indicates that, due to the scarcity of food, such a thing as the bony, thinly fleshed ass’s head became an expensive food item (although the ass was an unclean animal according to the Mosaic law), and even dove’s dung was very costly. The reference to dove’s dung has occasioned considerable discussion as to whether the term is literal and as to the use to which it was put by the buyer.

Arguments have been advanced that the name “dove’s dung” may have been applied to a certain plant, some basing this view on the fact that the Arabs use the name “sparrow’s dung” with reference to a certain plant eaten by persons of little means, while others argue in favor of the plant growing in the area of Samaria called the “Star of Bethlehem” and known by the Latin name Ornithogalum, meaning “birds’ milk.” However, there is no evidence that either of these plants was ever known by the name “dove’s dung” or that such plants would be accessible to the people bottled up in Samaria by the siege.

Those who acknowledge a literal meaning of the expression are, in turn, divided as to the use made of the substance. Some point out that dove’s dung has long been used as a fertilizer by people in the Near East in the cultivation of melons, but it seems reasonable that persons bordering on death by starvation would be concerned with food for immediate consumption rather than with a crop that would not be available for perhaps several months.

Many prefer the view that the dove’s dung was actually used for food, pointing out that the subject is that of famine and the terrible extremes to which humans are driven by the pangs of hunger. Though purposely extreme and cruel so as to create a weakening fear, the threat by Sennacherib’s officer, Rabshakeh, that a siege by Assyria would cause the people of Jerusalem to have to “eat their own excrement and drink their own urine” may have had some basis in fact. (2 Ki. 18:27) While the thought of using literal dung for human consumption is extremely repulsive, that in itself is no basis for rejecting this view. The fact that the hunger was so great in Samaria that women would boil and eat their own children indicates that they had reached the point of consuming anything available. (2 Ki. 6:26-29) While some point out that dung would have little value as a nutrient, this factor alone would not disprove the possibility of its being purchased for food, for starving persons are frequently irrational, eating anything to deaden the pangs of hunger.

Perhaps an even more likely suggestion is that of certain rabbins who hold that the dung was used for fuel. There is, at least, some Biblical parallel in this, since the prophet Ezekiel was instructed to picture the equally dire siege conditions due to come upon Jerusalem by cooking his food with dung as the fuel. (Ezek. 4:12-17) Dried cattle dung, called by some “cow chips,” serves as a common fuel in many parts of the earth till this day. If this view should be correct, then the account might simply be stating the cost of the food (in this case an ass’s head) and the cost of the fuel for cooking it. The succeeding verses indicate that the people were as yet not eating the flesh raw.

DRACHMA

A Greek silver coin roughly corresponding to the Roman denarius. (Luke 15:8, 9) The Attic drachma bore the head of the goddess Athena on the obverse side and an owl on the reverse side. By the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry, the drachma probably had depreciated to about .109 ounce troy (3.4 grams), and hence would be presently evaluated at $.14. In the first century C.E. the drachma was equated with the denarius, the latter being called “drachma” by the Greeks. The Roman government, though, officially reckoned the value of the drachma at three-fourths of a denarius. The Jews paid an annual temple tax of two drachmas (a didrachma).—Matt. 17:24.

The Greek silver drachma is not to be confused with the gold “drachma” (dar·k^emohnʹ) of the Hebrew Scriptures, a coin generally equated with the Persian daric (c. .27 ounce troy; c. 8.4 grams; $9.48 according to modern values).—Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:70-72.

DRAGNET

A net that was dragged along the bottom of a body of water to catch fish. (Ezek. 26:5, 14; 47:10) In ancient Egypt, dragnets were made of flax cords and equipped with lead weights at the bottom and wooden floats at the top. Likely those used by the Israelites were similar.

The methods of dragnet fishing used anciently were probably much like those employed in the Middle East in more recent times. The dragnet was let down from boats in such a way as to surround a school of fish, and the long ropes attached to the opposite ends of the net were taken ashore, where several men on each rope gradually pulled the net as a semicircle to the beach. (Matt. 13:47, 48) Another method was to draw the net together in a narrowing circle. Fishermen then dived into the water and pulled a portion of the weighted edge under the rest of the net, thus forming a bottom. After this the net was drawn into a boat or boats. (Luke 5:6, 7) Sometimes the net was first dragged into shallower water before being emptied.—Compare John 21:8, 11.

In the Scriptures, the dragnet is used figuratively with reference to the heart of an immoral woman (Eccl. 7:26) as well as to schemes to ensnare others. (Mic. 7:2) Also, military conquest is likened to fishing with a dragnet.—Hab. 1:15-17.

DRAGON

From the Greek draʹkon, depicting a terrifying monster, a serpentlike devourer. It occurs thirteen times in the Bible but only in the highly symbolic book of Revelation, and represents Satan the Devil. He is the “great fiery-colored dragon, with seven heads and ten horns,” having a tail that draws “a third of the stars of heaven” after him. (Rev. 12:3, 4) Together with these demons, Satan the Dragon is cast out of heaven down to the earth. “So down the great dragon was hurled, the original serpent, the one called Devil and Satan.” (Rev. 12:7-9) In this debased state he persecutes the remnant of God’s “woman,” those having “the work of bearing witness.”—Rev. 12:13-17.

Dragon-like Satan is also the one that gives power and great authority to the symbolic wild beast having seven heads and ten horns, and, in turn, he is worshiped by the peoples of “all the earth.” (Rev. 13:2-4) John in vision also sees that the croaking froglike “expressions inspired by demons,” which go out to “the kings of the entire inhabited earth,” come from the Dragon or Satan’s mouth as well as out of the mouths of the “wild beast” and the “false prophet.” The effect this has is to gather these rulers and their supporters “to the war of the great day of God the Almighty . . . to the place that is called in Hebrew Har–Magedon [Armageddon].” (Rev. 16:13-16) Following this greatest of all wars the “angel” that comes down from heaven will seize “the dragon, the original serpent, who is the Devil and Satan,” and will bind him and abyss him for a thousand years.—Rev. 20:1-3; see SATAN.

DREAM

The thoughts or mental images a person has while asleep. The Scriptures take note of such dreams as those from God (Num. 12:6), natural dreams (Job 20:8) and false dreams.—Jer. 29:8, 9.

DREAMS FROM GOD

Dreams from God were received by Jehovah’s servants and by persons not devoted to him. (1 Ki. 3:5; Judg. 7:13, 14) Some furnished warnings that protected His servants, and others gave them guidance. Thus, in a dream God warned Abimelech king of Gerar not to touch Sarah, with the result that she remained undefiled. (Gen. chap. 20) Complying with “divine warning in a dream,” the astrologers who visited Jesus did not return to murderous Herod. (Matt. 2:11, 12) In response to angelic instruction in dreams, Joseph took Mary as his wife and also fled with Jesus and Mary into Egypt. Later dreams from God led Joseph to return from Egypt with them and settle in Nazareth in order to fulfill the prophecy, “He will be called a Nazarene.”—Matt. 1:18-25; 2:13-15, 19-23.

Some dreams from God gave his servants assurance of divine favor or helped them to understand how Jehovah was aiding them. When God was about to conclude a covenant with Abram (Abraham), a deep sleep and great darkness fell upon the patriarch, Jehovah then apparently speaking to him in a dream. (Gen. 15:12-16) At Luz (Bethel) God caused Jacob to have a dream in which he saw a ladder reaching from earth to heaven, thus denoting communication with heaven. Angels ascended and descended on it and a representation of Jehovah was stationed above it, God then pronouncing a blessing on Jacob. (Gen. 28:10-19; compare John 1:51.) It was also by means of a dream that God, years later, showed his approval of Jacob and gave him angelic instruction to return to his homeland.—Gen. 31:11-13.

As a youth, Jacob’s son Joseph had dreams showing he had divine favor, these dreams also being prophetic. In one, he and his brothers were binding sheaves in the field. Joseph’s sheaf stood erect and those of his brothers encircled and bowed down to it. In another dream, the sun, moon and eleven stars bowed down to him. (Gen. 37:5-11) Both of these dreams were fulfilled when Jacob and his household moved to Egypt during a severe famine. To obtain food, they all became dependent upon Joseph, then Egypt’s food administrator.—Gen. 42:1-3, 5-9.

Some dreams from God experienced by persons not worshiping him were also prophetic. In Egypt, while Joseph was imprisoned with Pharaoh’s chief of cupbearers and chief of bakers, these men had dreams that God enabled Joseph to explain as meaning that in three days the chief cupbearer would be restored to his position, whereas the chief baker would be executed. This occurred three days later, on Pharaoh’s birthday. In time these dreams served the purpose of bringing Joseph to Pharaoh’s attention as having God’s spirit.—Gen. chap. 40

Warning and the prophetic element were combined in two dreams Pharaoh of Joseph’s day had in one night. In the first, he saw seven fat-fleshed cows devoured by seven poor, thin-fleshed cows. In Pharaoh’s second dream, seven full and good ears of grain came up on one stalk, only to be swallowed up by seven shriveled, thin, wind-scorched ears of grain. Joseph, ascribing the interpretation to God, correctly explained that both dreams pointed to seven years of plenty to be followed by seven of famine. (Gen. chap. 41) It was God’s direction to save many from starvation and particularly to preserve the life of Abraham’s descendants, to fulfill his promises to Abraham.—Gen. 45:5-8.

Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar also had two prophetic dreams from God. One was of a metallic image with a gold head, breast and arms of silver, belly and thighs of copper, legs of iron and feet of iron and clay. A stone cut out without hands struck and crushed its feet and then pulverized the rest of the image. Daniel identified Nebuchadnezzar as the “head of gold,” the image indicating that a succession of human kingdoms would follow that of Babylon. Ultimately, God would set up a kingdom that would “never be brought to ruin.”—Dan. 2:29-45.

In another dream from God, Nebuchadnezzar beheld a great tree that was chopped down, its remaining rootstock being restrained with “a banding of iron and of copper” until “seven times” passed over it. In keeping with Daniel’s explanation, boasting Nebuchadnezzar (symbolized by the tree that was cut down) went mad, remaining in that state until seven times, or years, passed. Thereafter he acknowledged God’s supremacy and, his sanity having returned, he was reestablished in his kingship.—Dan. chap. 4; see APPOINTED TIMES OF THE NATIONS.

Daniel himself had a dream from Jehovah in which