the power of speech, as can be seen from some of the instances cited above. The rule governing evidence in a case under the Mosaic law, and also followed in the Christian congregation, is that a person may be found guilty only “at the mouth,” that is, on the testimony, of two or three witnesses. (Deut. 17:6; Matt. 18:16; compare 2 Corinthians 13:1.) A few other examples of similar usage are found at Job 32:5; Psalm 10:7; 55:21; 78:36; Ezekiel 24:27; 29:21; Luke 21:15; Romans 15:6.

In addition, “mouth” may have reference to the opening of something, such as of a well (Gen. 29:2), a bag (Gen. 43:12; 44:1, 2), a cave (Josh. 10:22) or an opening in the earth (Num. 16:32), and to the receiving of shed blood by the ground. (Gen. 4:11) Sheol, mankind’s common grave, is spoken of as having a wide mouth, so as to receive many dead.—Isa. 5:14.

THE PALATE

The palate is the roof of the mouth separating the mouth from the nasal cavities, and having a soft part that forms a curtain between the mouth and the pharynx. In the Scriptures, “palate” is, in some cases, used nearly synonymously with “mouth.” Some translations, in fact, render the Hebrew word for “palate” as “mouth.”

Both Job and Elihu make a comparative use of the word when they liken the palate’s ability to discriminate taste to man’s judgment as to what is right and wise. (Job 12:11; 34:3) That the palate has a function in tasting is not erronous, as sometimes claimed. This can be seen by observing the part played by the palate in swallowing. Food is pressed by the tongue against the palate and spread out as it moves back into the pharynx, which is a tube leading toward the stomach and connected also with the nasal passages. This brings about better diffusion of the aroma of the food into the nasal passages, which greatly contributes to what is commonly called “taste.”

MOZA

(Moʹza) [a going forth].

1. A descendant of Judah and son of Caleb by his concubine Ephah.—1 Chron. 2:46.

2. A Benjamite and descendant of King Saul. He was the son of Zimri and father of Binea.—1 Chron. 8:33-37; 9:42, 43.

MOZAH

(Moʹzah).

A Benjamite city. (Josh. 18:21, 26) The ancient site is considered to be at or near Qaluniya, a village about three miles (5 kilometers) W-NW of Jerusalem. Jar handles stamped with the name “Mozah” have been found at Jericho and Tell en-Nasbeh.

MULE

The hybrid offspring of a he-ass and a mare. The mule’s body resembles that of the horse, but its short, thick head, long ears, short mane, small feet and its tail terminated by a tuft of long hairs are characteristic of the ass. The mule combines some of the finer qualities of both parents: the endurance, hardiness and surefootedness of the ass, and the strength, vigor and courage of the horse. The animal is less prone to disease than the horse, displays greater patience when bearing heavy burdens and enjoys a much longer life-span. The hinny, the offspring of a stallion and a she-ass, is smaller than the mule and lacks its strength and beauty. Both sexes of the mule, with rare exceptions, are sterile.

These animals were among the gifts brought to Solomon by kings desiring to hear his wisdom. (1 Ki. 10:24, 25; 2 Chron. 9:23, 24) Other mules may have been obtained from traders, such as the Phoenicians. (Ezek. 27:8, 9, 14) In the time of David, mules were used as mounts by prominent persons. David’s own she-mule was assigned for Solomon’s use on the occasion of his anointing at Gihon.—2 Sam. 13:29; 18:9; 1 Ki. 1:33, 34, 38, 39.

Mules were valued as burden-bearers. (2 Ki. 5:17; 1 Chron. 12:40) Jehovah, by means of his prophet Isaiah, indicated that mules would be one of the means of transport for bringing his scattered people to Jerusalem. (Isa. 66:20) It is therefore of note that in fulfillment of prophecy those returning from Babylonian exile brought with them 245 mules in addition to other beasts of burden.—Ezra 2:66; Neh. 7:68.

Humans are counseled not to make themselves persons without understanding, like a horse or a mule whose spiritedness must be curbed by means of a bridle or a halter.—Ps. 32:9.

MUPPIM

(Mupʹpim) [perhaps, wavings].

One of the “sons” of Benjamin. (Gen. 46:21) He is evidently identical with Shephupham (Num. 26:39), Shephuphan (1 Chron. 8:5) and Shuppim.—1 Chron. 7:12.

MURDER

The original-language words variously rendered kill, murder and slay refer to the taking of a life, the context or other scriptures determining whether the deliberate and unauthorized or unlawful taking of another person’s life is involved. For example, in the command, “You must not murder” (Ex. 20:13), the Hebrew word for “murder” (ra·tsahhʹ, literally meaning “to break” or “to dash in pieces”) here clearly refers to deliberate and unlawful killing. But at Numbers 35:27 the same term denotes an act that an avenger of blood was authorized to carry out. Therefore, the command, “You must not murder,” has to be understood within the framework of the entire Mosaic law, which authorized the taking of human life under certain circumstances, as in the execution of criminals.

EARLY HISTORY

Almost from the beginning of human history murder has been known. Through his disobedience, the first man Adam passed sin and death to his offspring, thus, in effect, proving himself to be a murderer. (Rom. 5:12; 6:23) Since it was the Devil who deliberately contributed to this development by inducing Adam’s wife Eve to sin, the Greek term an·thro·po·ktoʹnos, “murderer” or “manslayer,” is rightly applied to Satan.—Gen. 3:13; John 8:44.

Less than 130 years afterward the first violent murder, a fratricide, occurred. Cain, Adam’s firstborn son, motivated by envious hatred, murdered his righteous brother Abel. (Gen. 4:1-8, 25; 5:3) For this act Cain was cursed in banishment to become a wanderer and a fugitive in the earth. (Gen. 4:11, 12) Not until after the flood of Noah’s day did God authorize humans to administer capital punishment for murder.—Gen. 9:6.

UNDER THE LAW

Centuries later the Mosaic law was given to the Israelites and it included extensive legislation regarding the taking of human life. It differentiated between deliberate and accidental slaying. Factors considered as weighing against one claiming to be an accidental manslayer were: If he (1) had been a former hater of the slain person (Deut. 19:11, 12; compare Joshua 20:5), (2) had lain in wait for the victim (Num. 35:20, 21) or (3) had used an object or implement capable of inflicting a mortal wound. (Num. 35:16-18) Even slaves, if killed while being beaten by their masters, were to be avenged. (Ex. 21:20) Whereas the death penalty was prescribed for deliberate murderers and a ransom was ruled out in their case, unintentional manslayers could preserve their lives by availing themselves of the safety accorded them in the cities of refuge.—Ex. 21:12, 13; Num. 35:30, 31; Josh. 20:2, 3; see CITIES OF REFUGE.

Certain deliberate acts that indirectly caused or could have resulted in the death of another person were considered tantamount to deliberate murder. For example, the owner of a goring bull who disregarded previous warnings to keep the animal under guard could be put to death if his bull killed someone else. In some cases, however, a ransom could be accepted in place of the life of the owner. Undoubtedly the judges would take circumstances into consideration in such a case. (Ex. 21:29, 30) Also, an individual scheming to have another person killed by presenting false testimony was himself to be put to death.—Deut. 19:18-21.

The Law permitted self-defense but restricted an individual’s right to fight for his property. Bloodguilt came upon one who, though catching a thief in the act of breaking into his home, killed the lawbreaker in the daytime. This was evidently because thievery did not carry the death penalty and the thief could be identified and brought to justice. At night, however, it would be difficult to see what one was doing and to ascertain the intentions of an intruder. Therefore, the person killing an intruder in the dark was considered guiltless.—Ex. 22:2, 3.

In the first century C.E. those seeking to kill Jesus were identified as ‘children of the Devil,’ the first murderer or manslayer. (John 8:44) The scribes and Pharisees decorated the tombs of righteous ones, claiming that they would not have been sharers in putting the prophets to death. Yet they manifested the same murderous spirit toward the Son of God.—Matt. 23:29-32; compare Matthew 21:33-45; 22:2-7; Acts 3:14, 15; 7:51, 52.

HATRED EQUATED WITH MURDER

Murders issue forth from the heart of an individual. (Matt. 15:19; Mark 7:21; compare Romans 1:28-32.) Therefore, anyone hating his brother would be a murderer or manslayer. (1 John 3:15) Christ Jesus also associated murder with wrong attitudes such as an individual’s continuing wrathful with his brother, speaking abusively to him or wrongly judging and condemning him as a “despicable fool.” (Matt. 5:21, 22) It appears that the words of James (5:6), “You have condemned, you have murdered the righteous one,” may be understood in the same light. By showing favoritism to the rich and despising or hating the poor, those addressed by James had, as it were, become guilty of murder. As treatment accorded to his brothers is considered by Christ Jesus as being meted out to him, these persons had also figuratively murdered him.—Compare James 2:1-11; Matthew 25:40, 45; Acts 3:14, 15.

Although followers of Christ might be persecuted and even murdered for righteousness’ sake, they were not to be found suffering for having committed murder or other crimes.—Matt. 10:16, 17, 28; 1 Pet. 4:12-16; Rev. 21:8; 22:15.

MUSHI

(Muʹshi) [perhaps, yielding].

Grandson of Levi and son of Merari. (Ex. 6:16, 19) Mushi became father to three sons and founded a family called the “Mushites.”—1 Chron. 23:23; Num. 26:58.

MUSHITES

(Muʹshites).

A Levite family that descended from Mushi the son of Merari.—Num. 3:17, 20, 33; 26:58.

MUSIC

One of the gifts of God by which man can render praise and thanksgiving to his Creator as well as give expression to his emotions, his sorrows and his joys. Especially has singing been prominent in the worship of Jehovah God, but instrumental music, too, has played a vital role. It has served not only to accompany the vocalists but also to complement their singing. So it is not surprising that references to both vocal and instrumental music abound in the Bible from beginning to end, in association with true worship and otherwise.—Gen. 4:21; 31:27; 1 Chron. 25:1; Rev. 18:22.

HISTORY

The Bible’s first reference to music is before the Flood, in the seventh generation following Adam: “[Jubal] proved to be the founder of all those who handle the harp and the pipe.” This may describe the invention of the first musical instruments or perhaps even the establishment of some kind of musical profession.—Gen. 4:21.

In patriarchal times music seems to have been an integral part of life, judging from Laban’s desire to give Jacob and his own daughters a musical farewell. (Gen. 31:27) Song and instrumental accompaniment marked the celebration of the deliverance at the Red Sea and the victorious returns from battle of Jephthah, David and Saul.—Ex. 15:20, 21; Judg. 11:34; 1 Sam. 18:6, 7.

On each of the two occasions that were involved in transporting the Ark to Jerusalem, vocalists and instrumentalists were present. (1 Chron. 13:8; 15:16) In the later years of David’s life, Jehovah, through his prophets Nathan and Gad, directed the establishment of the music organization for the sanctuary.—1 Chron. 23:1-5; 2 Chron. 29:25, 26.

The musical organization begun by David was fully realized at Solomon’s temple. The grandeur and magnitude of the music at the dedication of the temple can be appreciated from the fact that the trumpeters alone numbered one hundred and twenty. (2 Chron. 5:12, 13) But as the nation grew lax in its faithfulness to Jehovah, all features of true worship suffered, including the music. However, when Kings Hezekiah and Josiah instituted their reforms, as well as when the Jews returned from the Babylonian exile, efforts were made to reestablish the arrangement of music that Jehovah had indicated he desired. (2 Chron. 29:25-28; 35:15; Ezra 3:10) Later, when Nehemiah inaugurated the wall of Jerusalem, the Levitical singers, with full instrumental accompaniment, contributed greatly to the joy of the occasion. (Neh. 12:27-42) While the Scriptures say nothing more about music in connection with temple worship after Nehemiah’s time, other records, such as the Talmud, tell of music being used there until the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E.

ARRANGEMENT AT THE TEMPLE

In conjunction with the preparations for Jehovah’s temple, David set aside four thousand Levites for musical service. (1 Chron. 23:4, 5) Of these, two hundred and eighty-eight were “trained in song to Jehovah, all experts.” (1 Chron. 25:7) The whole arrangement was under the direction of three accomplished musicians, Asaph, Heman and Jeduthun (apparently also named Ethan). Since each of these men was a descendant of one of Levi’s three sons, Gershom, Kohath, and Merari, respectively, the three chief Levitical families were thus represented in the temple music organization. (1 Chron. 6:16, 31-33, 39-44; 25:1-6) The sons of these three men totaled twenty-four, all of whom were among the aforementioned two hundred and eighty-eight skilled musicians. Each son was appointed by lot to be the head of one division of musicians. Under his direction were eleven more “experts,” selected from his own sons as well as other Levites. In this manner the two hundred and eighty-eight ([1 + 11] x 24 = 288) expert Levitical musicians, like the priests, were separated into twenty-four courses. If all the remaining 3,712 ‘learners’ were thus divided, it would average about one hundred and fifty-five more men to each of the twenty-four divisions, giving a ratio of about thirteen Levites in various stages of musical education and training to each expert. (1 Chron. 25:1-31) Since the trumpeters were priests, they would be in addition to the Levitical musicians.—2 Chron. 5:12; compare Numbers 10:8.

INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC

The Bible gives very little information concerning the shape or construction of the more than a dozen different musical instruments that it mentions. Hence, most authorities draw heavily on what archaeologists have discovered about the instruments used by contemporary surrounding nations. However, this may not always be a reliable guide, since it appears that Israel excelled in music in comparison with her