Tyre’s “traders” for oil. (Ezek. 27:2, 17) Perfumed oil and olive oil are also among the items purchased by mystic Babylon the Great from the “traveling merchants” of the earth.—Rev. 18:11-13.

Olive oil, a high-energy food and one of the most digestible fats, was a principal food in the Israelite diet, probably taking the place of butter for table use in many cases, also for cooking purposes. (Deut. 7:13; Jer. 41:8; Ezek. 16:13) It was a common lamp fuel (Matt. 25:1-9), and “pure, beaten olive oil” was burned in the lamps of the golden lampstand in the tent of meeting. (Ex. 27:20, 21; 25:31, 37) Oil was used in connection with grain offerings presented to Jehovah. (Lev. 2:1-7) As a cosmetic it was applied to the body after bathing. (Ruth 3:3; 2 Sam. 12:20) It was considered an act of hospitality to grease the head of a guest with oil. (Luke 7:44-46) Oil was also employed to soften and to soothe bruises and wounds (Isa. 1:6), sometimes along with wine.—Luke 10:33, 34.

RELIGIOUS USE AND SIGNIFICANCE

Jehovah commanded Moses to prepare a “holy anointing oil” that contained olive oil and other ingredients. With it, Moses anointed the tabernacle, the ark of the testimony, the various sanctuary utensils and furniture. Moses also used it in anointing Aaron and his sons, to sanctify them as priests to Jehovah. (Ex. 30:22-33; Lev. 8:10-12) Kings were anointed with oil, as when Samuel, anointing Saul, “took the flask of oil and poured it out upon his head.” (1 Sam. 10:1) A horn of oil was used when Solomon was anointed.—1 Ki. 1:39.

Foretelling the joy-producing effects of Jesus Christ’s earthly ministry, it was said that he would give “those mourning over Zion . . . the oil of exultation instead of mourning.” (Isa. 61:1-3; Luke 4:16-21) It was also prophesied that Jesus would be anointed personally by Jehovah with the “oil of exultation” more than his partners, indicating that he would experience greater joy than his predecessors of the Davidic dynasty.—Ps. 45:7; Heb. 1:8, 9; see ANOINTED, ANOINTING.

As the applying of literal oil to one’s head is soothing and refreshing, so also is the application of God’s Word to a spiritually sick person to soothe, correct, comfort and heal him. Thus, the older men of the Christian congregation are admonished to pray over such a man, figuratively “greasing him with oil in the name of Jehovah,” an essential measure in effecting his spiritual recovery.—Jas. 5:13-15; compare Psalm 141:5.

OIL TREE

[Heb., ʽets sheʹmen].

The identification of this tree is doubtful. The Hebrew name indicates a “fatwood” tree, rich in oil or similar substance. It has long been considered to be the oleaster (Elaeagnus hortensis or Elaeagnus angustifolia), which is a small tree or shrub common in Palestine, bearing gray-green leaves similar to those of the olive tree and producing a fruit from which an oil is obtained, much inferior to the oil of the olive. While its wood is hard and fine-grained, making it suitable for carving, it hardly seems to fit the description given of the ‘oil tree’ at 1 Kings 6:23, 31-33. There it is stated that, in the temple construction, the two cherubs, each nearly fifteen feet (4.6 meters) tall, as well as the doors to the Most Holy and the “foursquare” door-posts for the main entrance to the temple, were made of the wood of the ‘oil tree.’ The oleaster seems much too small a plant to fit these requirements adequately.

The Authorized Version and Revised Standard Version refer to wood of the olive tree at 1 Kings 6:23, and it is suggested that the cherubs may have been constructed of several pieces joined together, since the olive’s short trunk does not provide timbers of great lengths. Still, the fact that the olive tree is alluded to as distinct from the oil tree at Nehemiah 8:15 would seem to rule out this suggestion.

For this reason some authorities recommend the Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis), which they believe could have been called the “oil tree” because of its producing tar and turpentine. This lofty pine is one of the most common evergreens in Palestine, and there is evidence to show that the region around Jerusalem once had a sizable forest of it. It grows to from thirty to fifty feet (9.1 to 15.2 meters) tall, with smooth gray bark, light-green needles and reddish-brown cones. Its wood is said to be of a quality approaching that of the cedar. This tree could, therefore, fit the requirements for the temple building; however, in view of the lack of positive evidence the New World Translation renders the Hebrew term simply as “oil tree.”

Branches of the oil tree, along with those of the olive, myrtle and palm trees, were used in Jerusalem at the Festival of Booths. (Neh. 8:15) The oil tree is also one of the trees foretold to grace the wilderness, in Isaiah’s restoration prophecy.—Isa. 41:19.

OINTMENT AND PERFUMES

The Hebrew terms relating to ointments may apply, not only to salve-like preparations that liquefy when rubbed on the skin, but also to compounded oil preparations that remain liquid at normal temperatures.—Ex. 30:25; Ps. 133:2.

In the past as now, ointments were used chiefly as cosmetic and medicinal preparations, their advantage being mainly due to their oil content. The property that fats and oils possess, of absorbing and retaining odors, made it possible for the ointment maker to produce perfumed preparations that were highly prized for their fragrance. (Song of Sol. 1:3) The cleansing power and skin-softening characteristic of the oil, plus the fragrance of the additives, made such ointments very useful for the prevention of chafing and skin irritation, and for a body “deodorant” in hot countries where water was often very scarce. Offering guests such a preparation upon their arrival at one’s home was certainly an act of hospitality, as noted by what Jesus said when someone greased his feet with perfumed oil.—Luke 7:37-46.

When perfumed ointments of special make were used in preparing a corpse for burial, they no doubt served primarily as disinfectants and deodorants. (2 Chron. 16:14; Luke 23:56) With such usage in mind, Jesus explained that the anointing he received in the house of Simon the leper consisting of very costly perfumed oil, the scent of which filled the whole house, was in a figurative sense “for the preparation of me for burial.” (Matt. 26:6-12; John 12:3) Precious perfumes, such as the spikenard used on this occasion, were usually sealed in beautiful marblelike alabaster cases or vials.—Mark 14:3; see ALABASTER.

HOLY ANOINTING OIL AND INCENSE

The first ointment mentioned in the Bible was the holy anointing oil used to sanctify the dedicated articles of the tabernacle and its priesthood. (Ex. 30:25-30) Personal use of this special ointment was prohibited, under penalty of death. This law shows the sacredness attached to the tabernacle and its personnel.—Ex. 30:31-33.

Jehovah gave Moses the formula for the holy anointing oil. Only “the choicest perfumes” were to be used: myrrh, sweet cinnamon, sweet calamus, cassia and the purest olive oil, and each in specified amounts. (Ex. 30:22-24) Likewise, Jehovah gave the formula for the holy incense. It was not just a substance that would smolder and smoke; it was a special perfumed incense. (Ex. 30:7; 40:27; Lev. 16:12; 2 Chron. 2:4; 13:10, 11) To make it, specific amounts of stacte, onycha, perfumed galbanum and frankincense were used, God further describing it as “a spice mixture, the work of an ointment maker, salted, pure, something holy.” Some of the incense was finely powdered and probably sifted to obtain a uniform product, suitable for its special use. Private use was a capital crime.—Ex. 30:34-38.

In making both the anointing oil and holy incense, fragrant balsam oil was used. (Ex. 25:1, 2, 6; 35:8, 28) It seems reasonable to presume that the perfume agencies used in making the holy ointment were powdered and then cooked in the oil (compare Job 41:31), after which it was allowed to settle before the oil was drawn off and filtered.

Making the anointing oil and perfumed incense was not a matter of trial and error, for at the outset Jehovah said: “In the heart of everyone wise of heart I do put wisdom, that they may indeed make . . . the anointing oil and the perfumed incense for the sanctuary.” (Ex. 31:6-11; 35:10-15; 37:29; 39:33, 38) Thereafter certain ones of the priests were delegated to be ointment makers for the compounding of these materials and also to take the oversight of the supply of such items. (1 Chron. 9:30; Num. 4:16) However, when Israel fell away from pure worship, Jehovah ceased to take pleasure in the making or using of these special ointments and incenses.—Ezek. 8:11, 12, 17, 18.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF OINTMENTS AND PERFUMES

Ointments, perfumes and incense were not limited to the holy products used in the sanctuary. By Solomon’s day there were “all sorts of perfume” and fragrant powders available for scenting houses, garments, beds and bodies of royalty and others who could afford them. (Esther 2:12; Ps. 45:8; Prov. 7:17; Song of Sol. 3:6, 7; 4:10) Nor was the making of these preparations restricted to the Levitical priesthood. Even women were sometimes skilled ointment makers, and in Nehemiah’s day there was a trade group to which members of the ointment mixers belonged.—1 Sam. 8:13; Neh. 3:8.

The public interest in perfumed products created commerce and trade in the ancient world, not only in such consumer items, but also in the raw materials needed to make the same. Besides myrrh especially for ointments, and frankincense for incense, other materials including spikenard, saffron, cane, cinnamon, aloes, cassia, and various spices, gums and aromatic plants were often transported long distances before reaching the pots and perfumeries of the ointment makers.—Song of Sol. 4:14; Rev. 18:11, 13.

OLDER MAN

[Heb., za·qenʹ; Gr., pre·sbyʹte·ros].

These terms are not only used of persons of advanced age (Gen. 18:11; Deut. 28:50; 1 Sam. 2:22; 1 Tim. 5:1, 2), or the older of two persons (Luke 15:25), but also apply in a special way to those holding a position of authority and responsibility in a community or nation. The use of these terms in this latter sense by far predominates in both the Hebrew and the Greek Scriptures.

The elderly man customarily was held in esteem from ancient times forward, respected for his experience and knowledge and for the wisdom and sound judgment that such may bring. Elihu reflected this respectful attitude in saying to Job’s three companions: “Young I am in days and you men are aged. That is why I drew back and was afraid to declare my knowledge to you men. I said, ‘Days themselves should speak, and a multitude of years are what should make wisdom known.’” (Job 32:6, 7; compare Job 12:12, 20.) In the Law covenant, God gave the command: “Before gray hair you should rise up, and you must show consideration for the person of an old man, and you must be in fear of your God. I am Jehovah.” (Lev. 19:32; compare Proverbs 20:29.) Jehovah God himself is referred to as “the Ancient of Days,” for, though ageless in the sense of being eternal, he has lived longer than any other in the universe.—Dan. 7:9, 13, 22; Ps. 90:2; Hab. 1:12.

Recognizing the advantage of the older man over the younger man, people of many nations submitted themselves to the direction of their older men, either those who were the elder members of family lines or those who were more notable for their qualities of knowledge and wisdom. As a result the expression “older man” had a double sense, applying either in a physical sense or as a designation of position or office. Thus, the Arabic word sheikh, the Latin senator, and the Anglo-Saxon alderman all basically mean “older man” but were used beyond their ordinary meaning to serve as designations of those who exercised headship among the people. So, too, the context in the Bible indicates that the references to the “older men [“dignitaries,” JB] of the land of Egypt,” “the older men of Moab and the older men of Midian,” do not embrace every aged male of those nations but apply to those serving as a council for directing and guiding national affairs; they were the “princes [sa·rimʹ; “chieftains,” AT]” of those nations.—Gen. 50:7; Num. 22:4, 7, 8, 13-15; Ps. 105:17, 21, 22; compare Joshua 9:3-6, 11.

In the same way the expressions “older men of Israel,” “older men of the assembly,” “older men of my people,” “older men of the land,” are used in this official sense, not applying to every single aged man of the nation of Israel. (Num. 16:25; Lev. 4:15; 1 Sam. 15:30; 1 Ki. 20:7, 8) In the relatively few cases where z^eqe·nimʹ (“older men”) appears without some qualifying words, the context must be relied upon to determine whether the application is merely to aged males or to those in the official capacity of headmen.

OLDER MEN OF ISRAEL

In Egypt, Jacob’s descendants became very numerous, evidently reaching into the millions. (See EXODUS, page 543.) Already prior to the Exodus the people had representative members, their “older men,” who presented matters to them, acted as their spokesmen and reached decisions. Moses was instructed to present his commission to these “older men” when returning to Egypt, and these, or at least the principal ones among them, accompanied him when he went in before Pharaoh. (Ex. 3:16, 18) Obviously this did not include all the elderly Israelite men in a physical sense. (Compare Exodus 12:21; 18:12.) Illustrating the distinction between the physical and the official sense is God’s command to Moses: “Gather for me seventy men of the older men of Israel, whom you do know that they are older men of the people and officers of theirs,” in order that God might take some of the spirit that was upon Moses and place it upon the seventy. (Num. 11:16, 17, 24, 25) When Moses, as God’s representative, presented the Law covenant to the nation it was the official “older men” who represented the people in entering that covenant relationship with Jehovah. (Ex. 19:3-8) Seventy of such “older men,” along with Moses, Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, witnessed a vision of Jehovah’s glory in connection with the inauguration of that covenant.—Ex. 24:1-11; Deut. 5:23.

References to “all Israel, its older men and its heads and its judges and its officers” (Josh. 23:2; 24:1), “the older men of Israel and all the heads of the tribes, the chieftains of the paternal houses” (2 Chron. 5:2), do not mean that the “heads,” “judges,” “officers” and “chieftains,” were distinct from the “older men” but, rather, indicate that those named in such specific way held singular offices within the body of older men.—Compare Exodus 18:24-27; 2 Kings 19:2.

It appears that the scope of authority of the “older men” varied, even as in the wilderness there were “chiefs” of tens, fifties, hundreds and thousands. (Ex. 18:25) Once located in Canaan, bodies of “older men” functioned in each city. (Josh. 20:4; Judg. 8:14, 16) Doubtless, not all of these served as “older men” for the tribes (Deut. 31:28; 1 Sam. 30:26; 2 Sam. 19:11) or for the nation as a whole. Those serving on a national basis may be designated by the expressions “older men of Israel” (1 Sam. 4:3; 8:4), “older men of the land” (1 Ki. 20:7), “older men of the assembly” (Judg. 21:16), or, after the division of the kingdom, “older men of Judah and