middle mountain regions of Palestine and grows in other Mediterranean countries as well.

Laurel leaves were used by the ancient Greeks to form wreaths, which they placed on the heads of victors in the Pythian games and also extended to those holding certain offices as a symbol of distinction. Our English words “laureate” and “baccalaureate” are derived from these practices and uses of the laurel.

LAW

Law is defined as: “1. The principles and regulations emanating from a government and applicable to a people, whether in the form of legislation or of custom and policies recognized and enforced by judicial decision. 2. Any written or positive rule, or collection of rules, prescribed under the authority of the state or nation.”—American College Dictionary.

“A divine commandment or a revelation of the Will of God; collectively, the whole body of God’s commandments or revelations; the will of God, whether expressed in Scripture, implanted in instinct, or deduced by reason.”—Webster’s New International Dictionary.

The word “law,” in the Hebrew Scriptures, is translated primarily from toh·rahʹ, related to the verb hoh·rahʹ, meaning “to direct, teach, instruct in; to point, show the way.” In some cases it is translated from dath, “law, decree.” (Dan. 6:5, 8, 15) Other words translated in the Authorized Version as “law” are mish·patʹ, “judicial decision, ordinance, judgment,” and mits·wahʹ, “commandment, ordinance, precept.” In the Greek Scriptures the word noʹmos, from the verb neʹmo, “to deal out, distribute,” is translated “law.”

Jehovah God is designated as the Source of law, the Supreme Lawgiver (Isa. 33:22), the Sovereign, delegating authority (Ps. 73:28; Jer. 50:25; Luke 2:29; Acts 4:24; Rev. 6:10) and without whose permission or allowance no authority can be exercised. (Rom. 13:1; Dan. 4:35; Acts 17:24-31) His throne is established on righteousness and judgment. (Ps. 97:1, 2) The stated will of God becomes law to his creatures.

LAW TO ANGELS

Angels, higher than man, are subject to the law and commandments of God. (Heb. 1:7, 14; Ps. 104:4) Jehovah even commanded and restricted his adversary Satan. (Job 1:12; 2:6) Michael the archangel recognized and respected Jehovah’s position as Supreme Judge when he said, in dispute with the Devil: “May Jehovah rebuke you,” (Jude 9; compare Zechariah 3:2.) The glorified Jesus Christ is shown as having all the angels placed under his authority by Jehovah God. (Heb. 1:6; 1 Pet. 3:22; Matt. 13:41; 25:31; Phil. 2:9-11) An angelic messenger was sent by Jesus’ command to John. (Rev. 1:1) At 1 Corinthians 6:3 the apostle Paul speaks of the spiritual brothers of Christ as designated to judge angels.

LAW OF DIVINE CREATION (sometimes called “law of nature”)

One of the definitions of law given in Webster’s New International Dictionary, Second Edition, is “the observed regularity in nature.” As Creator of all things in heaven and earth (Acts 4:24; Rev. 4:11), Jehovah has established laws governing all created things. Job 38:10 speaks of a “regulation” on the sea; 38:12, of ‘commanding the morning’; and 38:31-33 calls attention to star constellations and to “the statutes of the heavens.” The same chapter points to God as governing the light, snow, hail, clouds, rain, dew and lightning. Continuing to chapters 39-41, God’s care for the animal kingdom is shown and the birth, life cycles and habits of animals are attributed to regulations laid down by God, not to any evolutionary “adaptation.” In fact, in the very creating of life forms God incorporated the law that each was to bring forth “according to its kind,” making evolution impossible. (Gen. 1:11, 12, 21, 24, 25) Man also brought forth sons “in his likeness, in his image.” (Gen. 5:3) At Psalm 139:13-16 the embryonic growth of a child in the womb is spoken of, its parts being written down “in [Jehovah’s] book” before any of them actually existed. Job 26:7 describes Jehovah as “hanging the earth upon nothing.” Scientists today attribute the earth’s position in space primarily to the interaction of the law of gravity and the law of centrifugal force.

LAW TO ADAM.

In the garden of Eden, Adam and Eve were commanded by God as to their duties (1) to fill the earth, (2) to subdue it, (3) to have in subjection all other living creatures of earth, sea and air. (Gen. 1:28) They were given laws as to their diet, granting them the seed-bearing vegetation and fruit as food. (Gen. 1:29; 2:16) However, Adam was given a command that prohibited eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and bad (Gen. 2:17); this was transmitted to Eve. (Gen. 3:2, 3) Adam is presented as a transgressor and a trespasser because he violated a stated law.—Rom. 5:14, 17; 4:15.

LAWS TO NOAH, AND PATRIARCHAL LAW

Noah was given commandments relative to the building of the ark and the saving of his family. (Gen. 6:22) After the Flood he was given laws allowing flesh to be added to man’s diet; declaring sacredness of life and, therefore, of blood, in which is the life; prohibiting the eating of blood; condemning murder and instituting capital punishment for this crime.—Gen. 9:3-6.

The patriarch was a family head and ruler. Jehovah is designated as the great Family Head or Patriarch, “the Father, to whom every family in heaven and on earth owes its name.” (Eph. 3:14, 15) Noah, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are outstanding examples of patriarchs. These were especially dealt with by Jehovah. Abraham was given the command to circumcise all the males of his household as a sign of God’s covenant with him. (Gen. 17:11, 12) He observed Jehovah’s “commands,” “statutes” and “laws.” He knew Jehovah’s way to do righteousness and judgment and laid these commands on his household.—Gen. 26:4, 5; 18:19.

The laws that governed the patriarchs were also generally understood and partially reflected in the laws of the nations at that time, all of which nations sprang from the three sons of Noah, the patriarch. For example, the Pharaoh of Egypt knew that it was wrong to take another man’s wife (Gen. 12:14-20), as did the kings of the Philistines in the cases of Sarah and Rebekah.—Gen. 20:2-6; 26:7-11.

In the days of Moses the Israelites were in slavery to Egypt. They had voluntarily come into Egypt during Jacob’s lifetime, but were enslaved after Jacob’s son, the prime minister Joseph, had died. So, in effect, they were ‘sold’ into slavery for nothing. Jehovah, in harmony with the patriarchal law of redemption and of the priority of the firstborn son, told Pharaoh, by the mouth of Moses and Aaron: “Israel is my son, my first-born. And I say to you: Send my son away that he may serve me. But should you refuse to send him away, here I am killing your son, your first-born.” (Ex. 4:22, 23) No redemption price was necessary for this release, nor was any given to Egypt. And when the Israelites left their slave masters, the Egyptians, “Jehovah gave the people favor in the eyes of the Egyptians, so that these granted what was asked; and they stripped the Egyptians.” (Ex. 3:21; 12:36) They had entered the land with the approval of the Pharaoh and as free people, not as captives of war to be enslaved. The enslavement had been unjust, so evidently Jehovah was seeing to it that they were now given wages for their labor.

The family was held responsible for violations of law by individual members. The patriarchal head was the responsible representative, blamed for wrongs of his family and required to punish individual wrongdoers in the family.—Gen. 31:30-32.

Marriage and birthright under patriarchal law

Parents governed the arrangement of marriage for their sons and daughters. (Gen. 24:1-4) The paying of a bride-price was common. (Gen. 34:11, 12) Among the worshipers of Jehovah intermarriage with idolaters was disobedience and against the interests of the family.—Gen. 26:34, 35; 27:46; 28:1, 6-9.

The birthright was reserved for the firstborn, belonging to him by inheritance. This included receiving a double portion of the estate. However, it could be transferred by the family head, the father. (Gen. 48:22; 1 Chron. 5:1) The oldest son normally became the patriarchal head when the father died. Sons, after marriage, could establish households separate from the father’s headship and could themselves become family heads.

Morals

Fornication was disgraceful and punishable, especially in cases of engaged persons or married persons (adultery). (Gen. 38:24-26; 34:7) Brother-in-law marriage was practiced when a man died childless. His brother could then take his wife, and the firstborn of their union would inherit the dead man’s estate and carry on his name.—Gen. 38:6-26.

Property

Generally there seems to have been no holding of individual property, aside from a few personal belongings, all herds, household goods and equipment being held in common by the family.—Gen. 31:14-16.

On the basis of related historical evidence, some scholars believe that, in transferring land, the buyer was shown the land from a vantage point, the exact boundaries being designated. When the buyer said, “I see,” he indicated legal acceptance. When Jehovah gave Abraham the promise of receiving the land of Canaan, Abraham was first told to look in all four directions. Abraham did not say, “I see,” perhaps because God said that he would give the Promised Land to Abraham’s seed, later on. (Gen. 13:14, 15) Moses, as the legal representative of Israel, was told to “see” the land, which, if the view just discussed is correct, would indicate legal transfer of the land to Israel, for them to take it under Joshua’s leadership. (Deut. 3:27, 28; 34:4; consider also Satan’s offer to Jesus at Matthew 4:8.) Other actions appearing to have similar legal flavor were: walking across the land or entering it for the purpose of taking possession. (Gen. 13:17; 28:13) In certain ancient secular documents, the exact number of trees on a piece of land was listed at each real-estate sale.—Compare Genesis 23:17, 18.

Custody

Legal responsibility came when an individual promised to keep or ‘guard’ a person, animal or thing. (Gen. 30:31) Reuben, as the firstborn of Jacob, was responsible in the case of Joseph’s disappearance. (Gen. 37:21, 22, 29, 30) The custodian was to give sufficient care to that in his charge. He had to restore animals stolen, but not those that died of themselves or that were lost through events beyond his control, such as to armed sheep rustlers. If killed by a wild beast, evidence of the torn animal had to be produced to clear the custodian of responsibility.—Gen. 37:12-30, 32, 33; Ex. 22:10-13.

Slavery

Slaves might be purchased or be such through birth to slave parents. (Gen. 17:12, 27) Slaves could enjoy a very honored position in the patriarchal household, as was the case with Abraham’s servant Eliezer.—Gen. 15:2; 24:1-4.

LAW OF GOD TO ISRAEL—THE LAW OF MOSES

Jehovah gave Israel the Law through Moses as mediator, in the wilderness of Sinai, 1513 B.C.E. At the inauguration of the Law at Mount Horeb there was an awe-inspiring demonstration of Jehovah’s power. (Ex. 19:16-19; 20:18-21; Heb. 12:18-21, 25, 26) The covenant was validated by the blood of bulls and goats. The people presented communion offerings, and heard the book of the covenant read to them, after which they agreed to be obedient to all that Jehovah had spoken. Many of the earlier patriarchal laws were incorporated in the Law given through Moses.—Ex. 24:3-8; Heb. 9:15-21; see COVENANT.

The first five books of the Bible (Genesis through Deuteronomy) are often referred to as “the Law.” Sometimes this term is used with reference to the entire inspired Hebrew Scriptures. Generally, however, the Jews considered the entire Hebrew Scriptures as composed of three sections, “the Law,” “the Prophets” and “Psalms.” (Luke 24:44) Commands that came through the prophets were also binding upon Israel.

Jehovah was recognized in the Law as absolute Sovereign and was also King in a special way. Since Jehovah was both God and King of Israel, disobedience to the Law was both a religious offense and lese majesty, an offense against the Head of State, the King Jehovah. David and Solomon and their successors on the throne of Judah were said to sit on “Jehovah’s throne.” (1 Chron. 29:23) Human kings and rulers in Israel were bound by the Law, and when they became despotic they were law violators accountable to God. (1 Sam. 15:22, 23) Kingship and priesthood were separate, this constituting a balance of power and a safeguard against tyranny. It kept the Israelites ever mindful that Jehovah was their God and real King. Each individual’s relationship to God and to his fellowman was defined by the Law and each individual could approach God through the priestly arrangement.

Under the Law the Israelites could have become a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” (Ex. 19:5, 6) The Law’s demands of exclusive devotion to Jehovah, its absolute prohibition of any form of interfaith, and its regulations concerning religious cleanness and diet constituted a ‘wall of separation’ to keep the nation outstandingly separate from other nations. (Eph. 2:14) A Jew could hardly enter a Gentile tent or house or eat with Gentiles without becoming religiously unclean. In fact, when Jesus was on earth, even entering a Gentile house or building was thought to make a Jew unclean. (John 18:28; Acts 10:28) The sanctity of life and the dignity and honor of the family, of marriage, of person, were protected. (See accompanying outline on Law covenant.) Additional effects, that could be considered incidental to the religious separation that the Law covenant accomplished, were the health benefits and protections from diseases common to the nations around the Israelites. The laws of moral cleanness, physical sanitation and diet undoubtedly had a very salutary effect when they were obeyed.

But the real purpose of the Law was, as stated by the apostle Paul, “to make transgressions manifest, until the seed should arrive.” It was a “tutor leading to Christ.” It pointed to Christ as the objective aimed at (“Christ is the end of the Law”). It revealed that all humans, including the Jews, are under sin and that life cannot be obtained by “works of law.” (Gal. 3:19-24; Rom. 3:20; 10:4) It was “spiritual,” from God, and “holy.” (Rom. 7:12, 14) At Ephesians 2:15 it is called the “Law of commandments consisting in decrees.” It was a standard of perfection, marking the one who could keep it as perfect, worthy of life. (Lev. 18:5; Gal. 3:12) Since imperfect humans could not keep the Law, it showed that “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.” (Rom. 3:23) Only Jesus Christ kept it blamelessly.—John 8:46; Heb. 7:26.

The Law also served as having “a shadow of the good things to come,” and things connected with it were “typical representations,” causing Jesus and the apostles to call often upon it to explain heavenly