this was only a partial victory, for Judah “could not dispossess the inhabitants of the low plain, because they had war chariots with iron scythes.”—Judg. 1:18, 19.

In the time of Judges

For years thereafter the continuance of the Philistines and other peoples in Canaan served to test Israel’s obedience to Jehovah. (Judg. 3:3, 4) Time and again they failed the test by adopting false worship. Therefore Jehovah abandoned the Israelites to their enemies, including the Philistines. (Judg. 10:6-8) But when they cried to him for aid, he mercifully raised up judges to deliver them. (Judg. 2:18) One of these judges, Shamgar, struck down 600 Philistines using a mere cattle goad. (Judg. 3:31) Years later, as had been foretold before his birth, Samson took the “lead in saving Israel out of the hand of the Philistines.” (Judg. 13:1-5) Evidence of the extent of Philistine control early in Samson’s judgeship can be seen in that, to avoid trouble, men of Judah on one occasion even delivered up Samson to them.—Judg. 15:9-14.

Samuel, the last of Israel’s judges, witnessed oppression from the Philistines and also shared in defeating them. While he was serving at the tabernacle in Shiloh during the final part of High Priest Eli’s judgeship, the Philistines struck down about 4,000 Israelites in the area of Aphek and Ebenezer. The Israelites then had the sacred Ark brought to the battlefield, thinking that this would bring them victory. The Philistines intensified their efforts. Thirty thousand Israelites were slain and the Ark was captured. (1 Sam. 4:1-11) The Philistines took the Ark to the temple of their god Dagon at Ashdod. Twice the image of this god fell on its face. The second time the idol itself was broken. (1 Sam. 5:1-5) The Ark was then passed from one Philistine city to another. Wherever it went there came to be panic and pestilence. (1 Sam. 5:6-12) Finally, seven months after the capture, the Ark was returned to Israel.—1 Sam. 6:1-21.

Some twenty years later (1 Sam. 7:2) the Philistines marched to Mizpah against the Israelites assembled there in worship at Samuel’s direction. This time Jehovah threw the Philistines into confusion, enabling his people to subdue them. Later, the “cities that the Philistines had taken from Israel kept coming back to Israel from Ekron to Gath.”—1 Sam. 7:5-14.

From Saul’s reign until their subjugation by David

However, this did not end Israel’s difficulties with the Philistines. (1 Sam. 9:16; 14:47) Apparently before Saul’s reign they had established garrisons in Israelite territory. (Compare 1 Samuel 10:5; 13:1-3.) The Philistines were strong enough to prohibit the Israelites from having their own smiths, thereby keeping them disarmed. This also forced the Israelites to go to them to have their agricultural implements sharpened. (1 Sam. 13:19-22) The situation was so severe that even Hebrews sided with the Philistines against fellow Israelites. (1 Sam. 14:21) Nevertheless, with Jehovah’s help, Saul’s first major campaign against the Philistines resulted in Israel’s striking them down from Michmash to Aijalon.—1 Sam. 13:1–14:31; see MICHMAS(H).

Later, upon recovering from this defeat, the Philistines assembled their forces to fight against Israel. The two armies took their position on opposite sides of the low plain of Elah, in Judah. Morning and evening, for forty days, the warrior Goliath emerged from the Philistine camp, challenging Israel to supply a man to fight him in single combat. (1 Sam. 17:1-10, 16) This challenge was answered by the shepherd David, who struck Goliath to the earth with a stone from his sling and used Goliath’s own sword to put him to death. (1 Sam. 17:48-51) The Israelites then pursued the fleeing Philistines, striking them down as far as the cities of Gath and Ekron.—1 Sam. 17:52, 53.

Thereafter David continued waging successful warfare against the Philistines. When he would return from battle, the women, in celebration of the victory, would say: “Saul has struck down his thousands, and David his tens of thousands.” (1 Sam. 18:5-7; see also 1 Samuel 18:25-27, 30; 19:8.) This caused Saul to become jealous of David, finally resulting in David’s having to run for his life. He fled to the Philistine city of Gath. (1 Sam. 18:8, 9; 20:33; 21:10) There the servants of King Achish appear to have sought David’s death. But by disguising his sanity, he was able to leave the city unharmed. (1 Sam. 21:10-15) Sometime thereafter David, though still pursued by Saul, saved the Judean city of Keilah from Philistine pillagers. (1 Sam. 23:1-12) A later Philistine raid in Israelite territory forced Saul to turn back temporarily from chasing David.—1 Sam. 23:27, 28; 24:1, 2.

Because of continually being hunted by Saul, David again decided to take refuge in Philistine territory. Received favorably by King Achish of Gath, David was given the city of Ziklag. (1 Sam. 27:1-6) A year or two later, when the Philistines were preparing to fight against Saul’s forces, King Achish, believing that David had become “a stench among his people Israel,” invited him to go along. But the other Philistine axis lords did not trust David and, at their insistence, he and his men returned to Philistia. In the ensuing conflict with Israel, the Philistines gained a decisive victory and Saul and three of his sons perished.—1 Sam. 27:12; 28:1-5; 29:1-11; 31:1-13; 1 Chron. 10:1-10, 13; 12:19.

When David was finally anointed as king over all Israel the Philistines invaded the low plain of Rephaim (SW of Jerusalem) but suffered humiliating defeat. (2 Sam. 5:17-21; 1 Chron. 14:8-12) A later Philistine offensive likewise ended in victory for Israel. (2 Sam. 5:22-25; 1 Chron. 14:13-16) During his reign David fought numerous other battles with the Philistines and succeeded in subduing them. On one occasion, however, he nearly lost his life.—2 Sam. 8:1; 21:15-22; 1 Chron. 18:1; 20:4-8.

From Solomon’s reign onward

For years thereafter there is no record of warfare with the Philistines. David’s son Solomon enjoyed a peaceful reign (1037-997 B.C.E.) and his dominions extended as far as the Philistine city of Gaza.—1 Ki. 4:21-25; 2 Chron. 9:26.

Some twenty years after the ten-tribe kingdom came into existence the Philistines occupied Gibbethon, a city in Dan. While trying to take the city, Israel’s King Nadab was killed by Baasha, who subsequently began to reign as king. (Josh. 19:40, 44; 1 Ki. 15:27, 28) Gibbethon was still under Philistine control some twenty-four years later when Omri, army chief of Israel, encamped against it.—1 Ki. 16:15-17.

While Jehoshaphat reigned (936-911 B.C.E.), the Philistines were evidently subject to him, for they brought gifts and tribute. (2 Chron. 17:11) But, during the rule of his son Jehoram, the Philistines and Arabs invaded Judah and carried away considerable spoil from Jerusalem. They also took captive Jehoram’s wives and sons—all except the youngest, Jehoahaz. (2 Chron. 21:16, 17) Decades later Judean King Uzziah successfully warred against the Philistines, capturing Gath, Jabneh and Ashdod. He even built cities in Philistine territory. (2 Chron. 26:6-8) However, the reign of Uzziah’s grandson Ahaz saw the Philistines capture and take up residence in a number of Israelite cities all the way from the Negeb up to the northern border of the kingdom of Judah. (2 Chron. 28:18) Ahaz’ son Hezekiah, in fulfillment of a prophecy uttered by Isaiah (14:28, 29), struck the Philistines down clear to Gaza.—2 Ki. 18:8.

PROPHETIC REFERENCES

The prophecy of Joel indicated that, because of their selling the “sons of Judah” and the “sons of Jerusalem” to the “sons of the Greeks,” the Philistines would experience like treatment. (Joel 3:4-8) Since the words of the prophet Joel appear to have been recorded in the ninth century B.C.E., the defeats of the Philistines at the hands of Uzziah (2 Chron. 26:6-8) and Hezekiah (2 Ki. 18:8) could have been included in the fulfillment of this prophecy.

However, a larger fulfillment evidently came after the Israelites returned from Babylonian exile. Notes commentator C. F. Keil: “Alexander the Great and his successors set many of the Jewish prisoners of war in their lands at liberty (compare the promise of King Demetrius to Jonathan, ‘I will send away in freedom such of the Judæans as have been made prisoners, and reduced to slavery in our land,’ Josephus, Ant. xiii. 2, 3), and portions of the Philistian and Phœnician lands were for a time under Jewish sway.” (Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament [The Twelve Minor Prophets], Vol. I, p. 224; compare Obadiah 19, 20.) Noteworthy, too, is the fact that Alexander the Great took the Philistine city of Gaza. Many of the inhabitants were slain and the survivors were sold into slavery. A number of other prophecies likewise pointed to the execution of Jehovah’s vengeance upon the Philistines.—Isa. 14:31; Jer. 25:9, 20; 47:1-7; Ezek. 25:15, 16; Amos 1:6-8; Zeph. 2:5; Zech. 9:5-7; for details see ASHDOD; ASHKELON; EKRON; GATH; GAZA No. 1.

At Ezekiel 16:27 “the daughters of the Philistines” are depicted as being humiliated on account of Jerusalem’s loose conduct. (Ezek. 16:2) The reason for this appears to be that Jerusalem’s unfaithfulness to her God Jehovah was without parallel, for the Philistines and other peoples had held fast to the worship of their false gods.—Compare Jeremiah 2:10, 11.

PHILOLOGUS

(Phi·lolʹo·gus) [fond of learning].

A Christian whom Paul greets in his letter to the Romans. (Rom. 16:15) The same name is found on inscriptions associated with the household of Caesar.

PHILOSOPHY

The Greek word phi·lo·so·phiʹa means, literally, “love of wisdom.” In modern usage the term relates to human endeavors to understand and interpret through reason and speculation the whole of human experience, the underlying causes and principles of reality.

The Greek words for “philosophy” and “philosopher” each occur only once in the Christian Greek Scriptures. (Col. 2:8; Acts 17:18) Evidently when Paul wrote to the congregation at Colossae in Asia Minor, some there were in danger of being affected by the “philosophy and empty deception according to the tradition of men.” Greek philosophies were then quite prominent. But the context of Colossians 2:8 shows that of special concern to Paul were Judaizers who were trying to bring Christians back to observing the Mosaic law with its required circumcision, festival days and abstinence from eating certain foods. (Col. 2:11, 16, 17) Paul was not opposed to knowledge, for he prayed that Christians be filled with it. But, as he showed, one must appreciate the role of Jesus Christ in the outworking of God’s purpose in order to obtain true wisdom and accurate knowledge. (Col. 1:9, 10; 2:2, 3) The Colossians were to look out lest perhaps someone with persuasive arguments might carry them off as prey through a human way of thinking or outlook. Such a philosophy would be part of the “elementary things [stoi·kheiʹa] of the world,” that is, the principles or basic components and motivating factors of the world, “and not according to Christ.”—Col. 2:4, 8.

When in Athens Paul had an encounter with “Epicurean and Stoic philosophers.” (Acts 17:18) They termed the apostle a “chatterer,” using the Greek word sper·mo·loʹgos, which literally applies to a crow that picks up seeds. The word also carries the thought of one who picks up scraps of knowledge and repeats such without order or method. Those philosophers disdained Paul and his message. Basically the Epicurean philosophy was that the obtaining of pleasure, particularly mental pleasure, was the chief good in life (1 Cor. 15:32); though it acknowledged gods, it explained these as being beyond human experience and concern. The philosophy of the Stoics stressed fate or natural destiny; one should be of high virtue but strive for indifference to pain or pleasure. Neither Epicureans nor Stoics believed in the resurrection. In his speech before such men Paul highlighted the relationship and accountability of the individual to the Creator and connected therewith Christ’s resurrection and the “guarantee” this provided men. To Greeks asking for “wisdom” the message about Christ was “foolishness” (1 Cor. 1:22, 23), and when Paul mentioned the resurrection, many of his hearers began to mock, but some became believers.—Acts 17:22-33.

In his inspired letters Paul emphasized a number of times that the wisdom and falsely called knowledge of the world is foolishness with God and is to be avoided by Christians.—1 Cor. 1:18-31; 2:6-8, 13; 3:18-20; 1 Tim. 6:20.

PHINEHAS

(Phinʹe·has) [mouth of brass; or, mouth of a serpent].

1. Son of Eleazar and grandson of Aaron. His mother was a daughter of Putiel and his son’s name was Abishua. (Ex. 6:25; 1 Chron. 6:4) It was young Phinehas’ quick action that halted the scourge from Jehovah after 24,000 Israelites had died on the plains of Moab because of fornication and attaching themselves to the Baal of Peor. When he spotted Zimri taking the Midianitess Cozbi into his tent, he pierced them both through with a lance, “the woman through her genital parts.” This zeal in “tolerating no rivalry at all” toward Jehovah was “counted to him as righteousness,” and God made a covenant for the priesthood to remain in his line “to time indefinite.”—Num. 25:1-3, 6-15; Ps. 106:30, 31.

During his lifetime Phinehas served in various capacities. He was the priestly representative in the army that executed Jehovah’s vengeance upon Midian. (Num. 31:3, 6) When it was thought that three tribes were forsaking Jehovah’s worship, he headed a group of investigators. (Josh. 22:9-33) He was chief of the tabernacle gatekeepers. (1 Chron. 9:20) After the burial of his father in the Hill of Phinehas, he served in the office of high priest. (Josh. 24:33; Judg. 20:27, 28) His name is prominent in several postexilic genealogies.—1 Chron. 6:4, 50; Ezra 7:5; 8:2.

2. The younger of the two “good-for-nothing” sons of priest Eli. (1 Sam. 1:3; 2:12) While serving as priests, he and his brother Hophni cohabited with women at the sanctuary and “treated the offering of Jehovah with disrespect.” (1 Sam. 2:13-17, 22) When feebly reprimanded by their father, they refused to hear. For their wickedness God pronounced judgment against them. This was fulfilled when they were both killed on the same day in battle with the Philistines. (1 Sam. 2:23-25, 34; 3:13; 4:11) News about the capture of the Ark and the deaths of her father-in-law and her husband was too much for Phinehas’ wife. She was thrown into shock and died giving birth to Ichabod.—1 Sam. 4:17-21.

3. A Levite, whose son Eleazar helped inventory the temple treasures in the time of Ezra, 468 B.C.E.—Ezra 8:33, 34.

PHLEGON

(Phleʹgon) [burning].

One of the Roman Christians whom Paul greets in his letter.—Rom. 16:14.

PHOEBE

(Phoeʹbe) [radiant].

A Christian sister of the first-century Cenchreae congregation. Paul, in his letter to the Christians at Rome, ‘recommends’ this sister to them, and calls on them to render her any needed assistance as one who “proved to be a defender of many, yes, of me myself.” (Rom. 16:1, 2) It may be that Phoebe delivered Paul’s letter in Rome or else accompanied the one who did.

Paul refers to Phoebe as “a minister of the congregation that is in Cenchreae.” This raises the question