capitals, were dispatched only on special occasions for specific purposes. Often they were persons of rank (2 Ki. 18:17, 18) and their office was highly respected. Consequently, they were accorded inviolability of person when they visited other rulers.

The treatment accorded a ruler’s messengers or envoys was considered as done toward the ruler and his government. Thus, when Rahab showed favor to the messengers sent as spies to Jericho by Joshua, she really was acting as she did because she recognized that Jehovah was the God and King of Israel. Jehovah, through Joshua showed her favor accordingly. (Josh. 6:17; Heb. 11:31) A flagrant violation of the unwritten international custom of respect toward envoys was the action of Hanun the king of Ammon, to whom King David sent some servants in a gesture of friendship. The king of Ammon listened to his princes, who falsely called the messengers spies, and publicly humiliated them, demonstrating his disrespect for David and his government. This disgraceful action led to war.—2 Sam. 10:2–11:1; 12:26-31.

Opposite to the modern-day practice of recalling an ambassador when diplomatic relations are broken with a government, the people of ancient times sent messengers or envoys as spokesmen to one another during times of strain in an effort to reestablish peaceful relations. Isaiah speaks of such “messengers of peace.” (Isa. 33:7) Hezekiah sent a peace appeal to Sennacherib the king of Assyria. Although Sennacherib was threatening the fortified cities of Judah, the messengers were given freedom of passage by the Assyrians because they were acting as Hezekiah’s envoys. (2 Ki. 18:13-15) Another example of this can be seen in the record about Jephthah, a judge in Israel. He dispatched messengers with a letter of remonstration against wrong action on the part of the king of the Ammonites and to clear up a dispute over territorial rights. If possible, Jephthah, through his envoys, would have settled the matter without war. These messengers were permitted to pass back and forth between the armies without hindrance.—Judg. 11:12-28; see MESSENGER.

AMBUSH

Ambuscades, in which troops were posted in concealed locations to surprise the enemy, were employed on various occasions by the Israelites. Joshua skillfully employed an ambush against Ai, posting five thousand men to the W of the city at night, while deploying the main body of his forces to the N. The following morning he drew the city’s defenders away from the city by feigning defeat, thus allowing the ambush to rise up and take the city (Josh. 8:2-21) Ambushes were involved in the dispute between the landowners of Shechem and Gideon’s son Abimelech. (Judg. 9:25, 31-45) Samson was the object of ambushes by the Philistines. (Judg. 16:1-12) Saul set an ambush against Amalek and later accused David of lying in ambush for him. (1 Sam. 15:5; 22:8) Other ambushes were those in the fight of Israel against the tribe of Benjamin (Judg. 20:29-44), the unsuccessful ambush of Judah by Jeroboam (2 Chron. 13:13-19), the ambush producing confusion among Judah’s attackers in the days of Jehoshaphat (2 Chron. 20:22, 23), those mentioned in describing the fall of Jerusalem (Lam. 4:19), and the ambush decreed against Babylon by Jehovah. (Jer. 51:12) The returning Jewish exiles were protected from ambush by Jehovah.—Ezra 8:31; see WAR.

The Hebrew word ʼa·ravʹ, meaning “to lie in wait or to ambush,” is also used in describing the hunting tactics of animals (Job 38:39, 40; Lam. 3:10), and, figuratively, to describe the prostitute as she waylays men (Prov. 7:12; 23:27, 28), and to describe the tactics of wicked ones against the innocent and the righteous. (Job 31:9; Ps. 10:8, 9; Prov. 1:11, 18; 12:6; 24:15; Jer. 9:4-9; Mic. 7:2; compare Psalms 56:1-6; 83:3, 4.) In Israel the death penalty was decreed for the man found guilty of killing another after lying in wait to do it.—Deut. 19:11, 12.

The more than forty Jews who “bound themselves with a curse” plotted an ambush against the apostle Paul but were foiled by Paul’s nephew.—Acts 23:12-35.

AMEN

(Heb., ’a·menʹ; Gr., a·menʹ).

This word is a transliteration from the Hebrew in both English and Greek. The original meaning is “sure,” “truly,” “so be it,” “truth.” The Hebrew root word from which it is drawn (’a·manʹ) means, literally, “to build, support,” and, figuratively, “to be firm, faithful.”

In the Hebrew Scriptures the word is used as a solemn expression to obligate oneself legally to an oath or covenant and its consequences (Num. 5:22; Deut. 27:15-26; Neh. 5:13), as a solemn expression to subscribe to an expressed prayer (1 Chron. 16:36), to an expression of praise (Neh. 8:6) or to an expressed purpose. (1 Ki. 1:36; Jer. 11:5) Each of the first four books or collections of the Psalms concludes with this expression, perhaps indicating that it was customary for the congregation of Israel to join in at the end of the song or psalm with an “Amen.”—Ps. 41:13; 72:19; 89:52; 106:48.

The Hebrew word ’a·manʹ is applied to Jehovah as the “faithful God” (Deut. 7:9; Isa. 49:7), and describes his reminders and promises as “trustworthy” and “faithful.” (Ps. 19:7; 89:28, 37) In the Christian Greek Scriptures the title “Amen” is applied to Christ Jesus as the “faithful and true witness.” (Rev. 3:14) Jesus made singular use of the expression in his preaching and teaching, using it very often to preface a statement of fact or a promise or prophecy, thereby to emphasize the absolute truthfulness and reliability of what he said. (Matt. 5:18; 6:2, 5, 16; 24:34 and others) In these cases the Greek word (a·menʹ) is translated as “truly” (AV, “verily”) or, when doubled, as throughout the book of John, “most truly.” (John 1:51) Jesus’ use of “amen” in this way is said to be unique in sacred literature, and it was consistent with his divinely given authority.—Matt. 7:29.

However, as Paul shows at 2 Corinthians 1:19, 20, the title “Amen” applies to Jesus not merely in the sense of a truth speaker or true prophet and spokesman of God, but also as the one in whom all of God’s promises find fulfillment and whose course of faithfulness and obedience even to a sacrificial death confirms and makes possible the bringing to reality all such promises and declarations of purpose. He was the living Truth of those revelations of God’s purpose, the things to which God had sworn.—Compare John 1:14, 17; 14:6; 18:37.

The expression “amen” is used many times in letters, especially those of Paul, when the writer has expressed some form of praise to God (Rom. 1:25; 16:27; Eph. 3:21; 1 Pet. 4:11), or expresses the wish that God’s favor be manifested in some manner toward the recipients of the letter. (Rom. 15:33; Heb. 13:20, 21) It is also used where the writer earnestly subscribes to what is expressed.—Rev. 1:7; 22:20.

The prayer expressed at 1 Chronicles 16:36 and those contained in the Psalms (41:13; 72:19; 89:52; 106:48), as well as the expressions contained in the canonical letters, all indicate the correctness of the use of “Amen” at the close of prayers. It is true that not all the prayers recorded show such conclusion such as David’s closing prayer for Solomon (1 Chron 29:19) or Solomon’s dedication prayer at the inauguration of the temple (1 Ki. 8:53-61), although such expression may well have been made. (Note 1 Chronicles 29:20.) Similarly, its use is not recorded in Jesus’ prayers (Matt. 26:39, 42; John 17:1-26), nor in the prayer of the disciples at Acts 4:24-30. However, the weight of the prior evidence presented strongly indicates the rightness of the use of “Amen” as a conclusion to prayer, and Paul’s statement at 1 Corinthians 14:16 in particular shows that it was customary for those in Christian assembly to join in the Amen to a prayer. Additionally, the examples of those in heaven, recorded at Revelation 5:13, 14; 7:10-12; and 19:1-4, all give support to its use in in subscribing to prayers or solemn statements and thereby, through the use of this one word, expressing the confidence, strong approval and earnest hope that is in their hearts.

AMETHYST

(amʹe·thyst).

A semiprecious variety of crystallized quartz, purple or violet in color and used for jewelry. It occurs in the form of hexagonal crystals, and the color is attributed to traces of manganese or iron. One type of amethyst is the quartz variety (Occidental), whereas precious amethyst (Oriental) is a variety of corundum or sapphire. The name “amethyst” is taken from the Greek word a·meʹthy·stos, meaning “not to intoxicate.”

Israel’s high priest wore an amethyst stone in the third position of the third row of stones on his embroidered “breastpiece of judgment.” (Ex. 28:2, 15, 19, 21; 39:12) In his vision of “New Jerusalem,” John observed that the twelfth foundation of the holy city’s wall was amethyst.—Rev. 21:2, 10, 19, 20.

ʽAM HA-ʼAʹRETS

[people of the earth or land].

This expression occurs some fifty or more times in the Hebrew Scriptures. In Jesus’ day it was employed by the religious leaders as a term of contempt, but originally this was not the case.

The Hebrew and Aramaic lexicon by Koehler and Baumgartner (Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, p. 711) explains this Hebrew phrase as meaning “the citizens possessing the full rights.” The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible (Vol. 1, p. 106) states that the term “in the strict sense includes only the responsible male citizenry, the married men who live on their own land and have full rights and duties, including the duty of serving in the army and of participating in judicial proceedings and . . . festivals.” (Compare Leviticus 20:2-5; 2 Kings 15:5; 16:15; Ezekiel 45:16, 22; 46:3, 9.) Thus, originally, the term was one of respect. It did not apply only to a lowly class or those or the poorer element.

In bargaining for the property rights to the cave of Machpelah, Abraham dealt with the Hittite “people of the land.” (Gen. 23:7, 13, RS) In these verses both An American Translation and the New World Translation render the Hebrew ʽam ha-ʼaʹrets as “natives.” Pharaoh, in speaking to Moses and Aaron, referred to the Israelites dwelling in Goshen as “the people of the land.” (Ex. 5:5) The term was used in the singular to embrace all the people of Canaan (Num. 14:9), and with the plural of ʽam (ʽam·mehʹ, “peoples”) to describe them as forming separate tribes or peoples within that land. (Neh. 9:24, 30) Sennacherib used the full plural form (ʽam·mehʹ ha-ʼara·tsohthʹ, “peoples of the lands”) as applying to the many peoples or nations conquered by the Assyrian forces. (2 Chron. 32:13, 19) It is used in a similar way as referring to the subject peoples within the Persian Empire in Queen Esther’s time.—Esther 8:17.

Within the nation of Israel the phrase ʽam ha-ʼaʹrets often distinguished the general citizenry from governmental or priestly officials. (2 Ki. 11:14, 18-20; Jer. 1:18; 34:19; 37:2; 44:21; Ezek. 7:27; Dan. 9:6; Zech. 7:5) However, it is evident that it embraced not merely the poor laboring class but also included persons of means, since Ezekiel, after decrying the injustices committed by greedy prophets, priests and princes, thereafter inveighs against the “people of the land” who have “carried on a scheme of defrauding and have done a tearing away in robbery, and the afflicted one and the poor one they have maltreated, and the alien resident they have defrauded without justice.” (Ezek. 22:25-29) To pay the heavy duties imposed by Pharaoh Nechoh, King Jehoiakim “exacted the silver and the gold from the people of the land” by means of taxation. Thus the ʽam ha-ʼaʹrets that struck down the conspirators against King Amon and made Josiah king or that later made Jehoahaz king were no so-called “rabble element.” (2 Ki. 23:30, 35; 21:24) When Nebuchadnezzar conquered Judah, sixty men of the “people of the land” were included along with the high court officials who were taken to Riblah and executed, these sixty doubtless being among the more prominent or leading citizens. (2 Ki. 25:19-21) Of course, the phrase ʽam ha-ʼaʹrets did embrace the poor and lowly citizens as well, and the king of Babylon designated a number of such to remain in Judah, as he had done earlier in Jerusalem.—2 Ki. 24:14; 25:12; Jer. 40:7; 52:15, 16.

In post-captivity times Ezra and Nehemiah condemned the wrong practice of the returned exiles in mingling with the “peoples of the land,” marrying their women, allowing them to carry on commerce within the city on the sabbath, and learning their detestable practices. (Ezra 9:11; 10:2, 11; Neh. 10:28, 31) The expression here referred to the surrounding non-Israelite peoples specified at Ezra 9:1, 2, and the reason for separating from them was not because of any low social or economic position on their part but because of God’s law requiring purity of worship.—Neh. 10:28-30.

AS A TERM OF CONTEMPT

In course of time, however, the religious leaders of Judah began to use the term as designating those persons, Jewish or non-Jewish, who were unlearned in the Law and more particularly those who were ignorant of or who failed to observe in detail the great body of rabbinic traditions that now developed. (Matt. 15:1, 2) The term expressed the contemptuous attitude exemplified in the statement of the Pharisees at John 7:49: “This crowd that does not know the law are accursed people.” Rabbi Hillel said: “No ʽam ha-ʼaʹrets is truly religious.” Other rabbinical statements applying to such nonobservers of Jewish traditions were: “Let not a man associate with sinners even to bring them near to the Torah [or Law]”; “the ignorant is impious; only the learned shall have part in the resurrection.” (Compare Matthew 9:11; Luke 15:2; 18:11.) Jesus, however, said that he “came to call . . . sinners” and he showed affection for the people who were “thrown about like sheep without a shepherd.”—Matt. 9:13, 36.

Thus the sense of ʽam ha-ʼaʹrets changed from one of general respect to one of religious opprobrium, much as the Latin term paganus, from which our English word “pagan” derives, originally meant simply a dweller in a rural community, but, since those country people were often the last to be converted, it came to be used by city dwellers as applying to all who did not adopt their professed Christian beliefs. In a similar way the term “heathen” at first meant simply one who lived out on the “heath” or field.

AMI

See AMON No. 3.

AMITTAI

(A·mitʹtai) [true; faithful].

Father of the prophet Jonah, from Gath-hepher in Zebulun.—2 Ki. 14:25; Jonah 1:1.

AMMAH

(Amʹmah) [cubit].

A hill “in front of Giah on the way to the wilderness of Gibeon.” Here Abner, Saul’s former chief of the army and now fighting for Saul’s son and heir, Ish-bosheth, made his “last stand” against the pursuing forces of Joab and Abishai, after they had defeated Abner in the battle at the pool of Gibeon. At this hill Abner persuaded Joab to stop pursuing him, and the battle ended. (2 Sam. 2:12-32) While it probably lay to the E of Gibeon, it is not known exactly which of the hills of this region bore this name.

AMMIEL

(Amʹmi·el) [my kinsman is God].

1. Son of Gemalli of the tribe of Dan. One of twelve sent out by Moses to spy out the land of Canaan. (Num. 13:12) He was among the ten spies who gave a bad report of the Promised Land and died by the scourge from Jehovah.—14:36, 37.

2. Father of Machir of Lo-debar in Transjordan. It was in the house of Machir that Mephibosheth, son of