made a cover of pure gold for the sacred chest or ark of the covenant, two and one-half cubits (c. 44 inches; 111 centimeters) long and one and one-half cubits (c. 26 inches; 67 centimeters) wide. It was surmounted by two golden cherubs, one at each end of the cover, their wings spread upward, screening the cover. The cherubs’ faces were toward the cover. The Ark was placed in the Most Holy compartment of the Tabernacle.—Ex. 25:17-21; 37:1, 6-9.

On the day of atonement (yohm hak·kip·pu·rimʹ, meaning “day of the coverings or propitiations” [Lev. 23:27, 28]), the high priest entered the Most Holy and spattered some of the bull’s blood before the cover (at its front or east side), and then did the same with the blood of the goat. (Lev. 16:14, 15) Thus the gold cover of the Ark played a special role in the typical propitiation (or, covering) of sins.

JEHOVAH’S PRESENCE REPRESENTED

From between the cherubs on the propitiatory cover God spoke when he desired to communicate with Moses or with the high priest. (Ex. 25:22; Num. 7:89; compare Leviticus 10:8-10; Numbers 27:18-21.) Jehovah said that he would appear in a cloud over the cover of the Ark. This cloud apparently glowed or shone, lighting up the Most Holy compartment.—Lev. 16:2; compare Psalm 80:1.

“THE HOUSE OF THE PROPITIATORY COVER”

In 1 Chronicles 28:11 the Most Holy, the innermost compartment of the Temple, is referred to as “the house of the kap·poʹreth.” In this instance the Hebrew word is evidently not used simply as designating a lid or cover for a chest, but is employed with regard to the special function of the cover in the propitiation of sins. Accordingly, the expression is rendered “the house of the atonement” (Yg), “the house of propitiation” (AT), “the house of the propitiatory cover” (NW).

SYMBOLIC

At Hebrews 9:5 the Greek word hi·la·steʹri·os, “propitiatory,” is used for the cover of the Ark. In the type or pattern God’s presence was represented between the two cherubs over the propitiatory cover. (Lev. 16:2; Ex. 25:22) The writer of the book of Hebrews points out that these things were symbolic. As the high priest on the day of atonement entered the Most Holy with sacrificial blood, so Christ took the value of his sacrifice, not before a literal propitiatory cover, but before the very presence of Jehovah God in heaven.—Lev. 16:15; Heb. 9:11-14, 24-28.

PROSELYTE

The Greek word pro·seʹly·tos means “stranger,” or “one who has come over to Judaism, convert.” It is used in both the Septuagint and the Christian Greek Scriptures.

For more than nineteen centuries Jehovah dealt with a special, select people, the family of Abraham and his seed, primarily the nation of Israel. Yet it was possible for a non-Hebrew or a non-Israelite who desired to serve Jehovah according to the requirements of true worship to do so. He would, though, have to convert to true religion, or become a proselyte. The Mosaic law made specific provisions for a person of non-Israelite origin dwelling in Israel. Such an “alien resident” could become a full worshiper of Jehovah, being circumcised, if a male, in acknowledgment of his acceptance of true worship. (Ex. 12:48, 49) A proselyte was responsible to obey all of the Law, and he was to be treated by natural Jews as a brother. (Lev. 19:33, 34; 24:22; Gal. 5:3; see ALIEN RESIDENT.) The Hebrew word ger, rendered “alien resident” (“stranger,” AV), does not always signify such a religious convert (Gen. 15:13; Ex. 2:22; Jer. 14:8), but in more than seventy instances where the translators of the Septuagint believed that it did, they rendered it by the Greek pro·seʹly·tos.

Throughout Israelite history non-Jews became proselytes, in effect saying about the Jews what Moabitess Ruth said to Naomi: “Your people will be my people, and your God my God.” (Ruth 1:16; Josh. 6:25; Matt. 1:5) Solomon’s prayer at the inauguration of the temple reflected God’s open and generous spirit toward those of many nations who might want to serve Him as proselytes. (1 Ki. 8:41-43) Non-Jews mentioned by name who evidently became proselytes included Doeg the Edomite (1 Sam. 21:7), Uriah the Hittite (2 Sam. 11:3, 11) and Ebed-melech the Ethiopian. (Jer. 38:7-13) When the Jews in Mordecai’s time received permission to stand and defend themselves, “many of the peoples of the land were declaring themselves Jews.” (Esther 8:17) The Septuagint reads: “And many of the Gentiles were circumcised, and became Jews.”—Bagster.

ACTIVE IN PROSELYTIZING

As a result of the Babylonian exile Judaism became widespread. Jews of the Dispersion came into contact with pagans of many nations. The establishment of synagogues and the availability of the Hebrew Scriptures in the Greek language made it easier for persons throughout the Roman world to learn of the Jewish religion. Ancient writers such as Horace and Seneca testified that numerous persons in various lands joined themselves to the Jews, thus becoming proselytes. Josephus reported that Jews in Syrian Antioch “made proselytes of a great many of the Greeks.” The Interpreter’s Dictionary of the Bible (Vol. 3, p. 925) points out that “the Jews in Rome exhibited such an aggressive spirit of proselytism that they were charged with seeking to infect the Romans with their cult, and the government expelled the chief propagandists from the city in 139 B.C.” This charge, of course, may have been unfounded or exaggerated, perhaps being politically motivated or due to some racial or religious prejudice. Nevertheless, Jesus himself said about the hypocritical scribes and Pharisees: “You traverse sea and dry land to make one proselyte, and when he becomes one you make him a subject for Gehenna twice as much so as yourselves.”—Matt. 23:15.

Proselytizing by force

Not all the Jewish proselytes were won over by peaceful means. Historian Josephus related that John Hyrcanus conquered the Idumeans in 125 B.C.E. and told the people that they could stay in their country only if they submitted to circumcision, becoming proselytes by force. (Antiquities of the Jews, Book XIII, chap. IX, par. 1) Aristobulus, the son of John Hyrcanus, did the same with the Itureans. (Book XIII, chap. XI, par. 3) Later, Jews under Alexander Janneus slaughtered the inhabitants of Pella because they refused to become proselytes. (Book XIII, chap. XV, par. 3) Political considerations were undoubtedly the basis for such deeds, rather than missionary zeal.

PROSELYTES BECAME CHRISTIANS

The record in the Christian Greek Scriptures indicates that some of the circumcised Jewish proselytes were sincere in their worship of Jehovah. The crowd from many lands who heard Peter on the day of Pentecost 33 C.E. and became Christians was made up of “both Jews and proselytes.” (Acts 2:10) The proselytes from other lands had journeyed to Jerusalem in obedience to Jehovah’s law. Similarly, the Ethiopian eunuch whom Philip baptized had gone to Jerusalem to worship and was reading God’s Word as he traveled homeward. (Acts 8:27-38) He must have been a eunuch in the sense of “court official,” for had he been castrated he could not have become a proselyte. (Deut. 23:1; see ETHIOPIA, ETHIOPIAN.) In the early days of the Christian congregation “Nicolaus, a proselyte of Antioch,” was appointed to special duties in connection with the distribution of food, being a man “full of spirit and wisdom.”—Acts 6:2-6.

Good news spread among the Gentiles

Until 36 C.E. the Christian message was directed solely to Jews, to Gentiles who had become circumcised Jewish proselytes, and to Samaritans. The Italian Cornelius is described as “a devout man and one fearing God . . . [who] made many gifts of mercy to the people and made supplication to God continually.” But he was not a Jewish proselyte, for he was an uncircumcised Gentile. (Acts 10:1, 2; compare Luke 7:2-10.) When once the door was opened to the Gentiles, active Christian missionary work expanded. Nevertheless, Paul often preached first to the Jews and proselytes in cities to which he traveled. Paul had great love for his Jewish brothers and a desire that they might be saved. (Rom. 9:3; 10:1) Moreover, the Jews and proselytes were the logical ones to approach first, for they knew of Jehovah and his laws and were looking for the Messiah. Their background enabled those among them with good hearts to recognize Jesus Christ as the fulfillment of their hopes. These could form a strong nucleus for a congregation and could, in turn, teach the Gentiles, who knew nothing about Jehovah and his Word.

PROSTITUTE

A person, usually a woman, given to indiscriminate lewdness; specifically, one who offers herself indiscriminately to sexual intercourse for hire; a harlot.

UNDER THE LAW

The law that God gave to Israel commanded: “Do not profane your daughter by making her a prostitute, in order that the land may not commit prostitution and the land actually be filled with loose morals.” (Lev. 19:29) Adultery was prohibited by the seventh commandment (Ex. 20:14; Deut. 5:18); the penalty was death for both parties. (Lev. 20:10) The girl found guilty of having married under the false pretense of virginity was to be put to death. (Deut. 22:13-21) The engaged girl who committed fornication with another man was considered the same as an adulterous wife, and was put to death. (Deut. 22:23, 24) The single girl who committed fornication was to be married to the man who seduced her unless the father refused to permit the marriage.—Ex. 22:16, 17; Deut. 22:28, 29.

For these and other reasons, prostitutes in Israel were, doubtless with few exceptions, foreign women. The Proverbs repeatedly warn against the “strange woman” and the “foreign woman” who would entice a man to commit immorality.—Prov. 2:16; 5:20; 7:5; 22:14; 23:27.

A priest was forbidden by the Law to marry a prostitute, and the daughter of a priest who committed prostitution was to be put to death and afterward burned in the fire. (Lev. 21:7, 9, 14) The ‘hire of a prostitute’ was not to be received as a contribution at Jehovah’s sanctuary, because prostitutes were detestable in Jehovah’s sight.—Deut. 23:18.

It was the case of two prostitutes, handled in a wise and understanding way, that greatly strengthened the faith of the people in Solomon as the fitting successor of David to the throne of Israel. Probably the case had been one upon which the judges of the lower court could not decide, and it was referred, therefore, to the king. (Deut. 1:17; 17:8-11; 1 Sam. 8:20) These women may have been prostitutes, not in a commercial sense, but women who had committed fornication, either Jewish women, or, quite possibly, women of foreign descent.—1 Ki. 3:16-28.

TEMPLE PROSTITUTES

Temple Prostitutes constituted a prominent feature of false religion. The historian Herodotus reports the “abominable custom of the Babylonians, who compelled every native female to attend the temple of Venus [Ishtar] once in her life, and to prostitute herself in honor of the goddess.” Temple prostitutes were also connected with the worship of Baal, Ashtoreth and other gods and goddesses worshiped in Canaan and elsewhere.

According to the historian Strabo of the first century B.C.E., the great temple of Aphrodite at Corinth boasted of having no fewer than a thousand temple prostitutes. Concerning the phallic worship of Aphrodite as centered at Corinth, Clarke’s Commentary (Preface to First Corinthians) says: “Public prostitution formed a considerable part of their religion; and they were accustomed in their public prayers, to request the gods to multiply their prostitutes! and in order to express their gratitude to their deities for the favours they received, they bound themselves, by vows, to increase the number of such women; for commerce with them was neither esteemed sinful nor disgraceful.”

Male temple prostitutes were also a part of degenerate worship.—1 Ki. 14:23, 24; 15:12; 22:46.

‘THE WAY TO DEATH’

King Solomon, in the seventh chapter of Proverbs, describes a scene that he observed, illustrating the workings of the prostitute and the results to those who are ensnared by her. He speaks of a young man passing along the street near a prostitute’s house, at the approach of night. Solomon describes the young man as “in want of heart,” for his motive is bad since he goes to this place at a late hour, evidently knowing the probability that he will meet such a woman. (Compare Proverbs 6:32.) The woman, dressed in the immodest manner of a prostitute, is lying in wait and approaches him. She has smooth lips and fair speech, but her actual disposition is boisterous and stubborn; she is cunning of heart. This prostitute puts on a display of being righteous by saying that she had made communion sacrifices that very day (implying that there would be food on which to feast, inasmuch as the offerer regularly took part of the communion sacrifice for himself and his family).

Now that the young man is enticed to this point, Solomon shows, he is irresistibly drawn into sin with her, throwing all good sense to the wind, going ahead ‘like a bull to the slaughter,’ as a man who is in fetters and cannot escape the discipline he will get. “Until,” says Solomon, “an arrow cleaves open his liver,” that is, until he gets the wound that causes death, both spiritually and physically, for not only has he exposed his body to death-dealing venereal disease (syphilis often attacks the liver), but also “he has not known that it involves his very soul.” His entire being and his life are seriously affected and he has sinned seriously against God. Solomon concludes his account saying: “The ways to Sheol her house is; they are descending to the interior rooms of death.”—Compare Proverbs 2:16-19; 5:3-14.

‘Destroys valuable things’

The proverb says: “A man that is loving wisdom makes his father rejoice, but he that is having companionship with prostitutes destroys valuable things.” (Prov. 29:3) First of all, he destroys his relationship with God, the most valuable possession; then he brings reproach upon his family and destroys family relationships. As another proverb warns, such a man ‘gives to others his dignity and his years to what is cruel; strangers take their fill of his power, and the things he got by pain come to be in the house of a foreigner.’—Prov. 5:9, 10.

The wise man therefore counsels: “Do not desire her [the foreign woman’s] prettiness in your heart, . . . because in behalf of a woman prostitute one comes down to a round loaf of bread; but as regards another man’s wife, she hunts even for a precious soul.” (Prov. 6:24-26) This may mean that a man in Israel, by his association with a prostitute, squandered his substance and was reduced to poverty (compare 1 Samuel 2:36; Luke 15:30), but the man who committed adultery with another man’s wife was losing his soul (under the Law death was the penalty for adultery). Or, the entire passage may be referring to the adulterous wife as a prostitute.

The concluding verses of the chapter (Prov. 6:29-35) say: “[As to] anyone having relations with the wife of his fellow man, no one touching her will remain unpunishable. People do not despise a thief just