The Arnon is referred to on line 26 of the famed Moabite Stone, King Mesha of Moab there boasting that he had constructed a highway through the valley. Archaeological discoveries of evidence of a number of forts and bridges in the area testify to the strategic importance of the Arnon. Its name figures in prophecies directed against Moab.—Isa. 16:2; Jer. 48:20.

AROD, ARODI, ARODITES

(Arʹod, Ar·oʹdi, Arʹodites) [hunchbacked].

Sixth-named son of Gad and one of the souls who came into Egypt with Jacob’s family in 1728 B.C.E. He became family head of the Arodites included in the wilderness census of 1473 B.C.E.—Gen. 46:8, 16; Num. 26:17.

AROER

(A·roʹer) [nakedness; or, perhaps, juniper].

1. A city located on the N rim of the deep gorge forming the torrent valley of the Arnon. At the time of the conquest by Israel (c. 1474 B.C.E.) it was the southernmost city of the Amorite kingdom. (Deut. 2:36; 4:47, 48; Josh. 12:2) Thereafter it passed to the tribe of Reuben, although the tribe of Gad is mentioned as building (probably, repairing) the city. (Num. 32:33, 34; Deut. 3:12; Josh. 13:8, 9, 15, 16; 1 Chron. 5:8) It marked the southern boundary of Israel E of the Jordan and so corresponded to Beer-sheba, a major southern city W of the Jordan.

After some three hundred years of Israelite occupation, the Ammonites pressed a claim for the region lying between the Arnon and the Jabbok, but Judge Jephthah refuted their claim by showing that Israel had taken the land, including Aroer, from the Amorites.—Judg. 11:13, 22, 26.

This city of Aroer appears to have been the starting point for the census ordered by King David, which thereafter swung N to Dan-jaan and looped over to Tyre and Sidon and then S to Beer-sheba in the Negeb. (2 Sam. 24:4-8) The mention of “the city that is in the middle of the torrent valley” coincides with similar references at Deuteronomy 2:36 and Joshua 13:9, 16. This unnamed city is considered by some to correspond to Khirbet el-Medeiyineh, about seven miles (11.3 kilometers) SE of Aroer.

During the reign of King Jehu of Israel (905-876 B.C.E.), King Hazael of Syria overran the territories of Gad and Reuben, as far S as Aroer on the Arnon. (2 Ki. 10:33) Perhaps during this time, Moabite King Mesha fortified the city and built his road by the Arnon, as related on line 26 of the Moabite Stone. At the time of Jeremiah’s prophecy against Moab the city was under Moabite control.—Jer. 48:19; Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, Book X, chap. IX, par. 7.

The site of the ancient city is located near the modern village of ʽAraʽir, about fourteen miles (22.5 kilometers) E of the Dead Sea, a few miles S of Dibon, and close by the King’s Highway, the main N-S route on that side of the Jordan. The ruins contain evidences of an ancient fortress, which, from its vantage point on the edge of the impressive gorge, could likely control the passages over the Arnon.

2. A town of the territory of Gad, described as “in front of Rabbah” (modern ‘Amman), the chief city of the Ammonites. (Josh. 13:24, 25) It is possibly the Aroer mentioned in the description of Jephthah’s conquest over the Ammonites at Judges 11:33. The location of the place is uncertain since the expression “in front of” is not particularly restrictive, though often considered as meaning “to the east of.”

3. A town in the southern part of the territory of Judah. After David’s victory over the Amalekite raiders he distributed portions of the spoil to the older men of the city. (1 Sam. 30:26, 28) It is identified with modern ʽArʽarah, about twelve miles (19.3 kilometers) SE of Beer-sheba, where the ruins of a fort remain. It may be the same place as the “Adadah” of Joshua 15:22, the Hebrew letter daʹleth (ד) being substituted for rehsh (ר) in both instances.

The reference to the “cities of Aroer” at Isaiah 17:2 could apply to either of the first two cities here considered. The prophecy primarily deals with Damascus and, in view of the Syrian conquest of Israel reaching as far as Aroer on the Arnon, the expression may refer to this southernmost point of their extension of power E of the Jordan.—2 Ki. 10:33.

AROERITE

(A·roʹer·ite)

An inhabitant of one of the cities named Aroer. At 1 Chronicles 11:44 Hotham, the father of two of David’s mighty men named Shama and Jeiel, is referred to as an Aroerite. His sons’ association with David may place their father’s home city in the territory of Judah.—See AROER No. 3.

ARPACHSHAD

(Ar·pachʹshad).

A son of Shem, born two years after the global Flood (about 2368 B.C.E.) and died 438 years later. He was an ancestor of the Hebrews through his grandson Eber. (Gen. 10:22, 24; 11:10-13; 1 Chron. 1:17-27) He is shown to be the father of Shelah, although Luke’s account (3:35, 36), by the inclusion of Cainan, apparently would make him Shelah’s grandfather; but see CAINAN No. 2.—Gen. 10:24; 11:12; 1 Chron. 1:24.

The meaning of the name Arpachshad has been the subject of much discussion, but it is generally conceded to have some relation to the early Chaldeans. The Soncino Books of the Bible (Chronicles) in commenting on 1 Chronicles 1:18 states: “It may be noted that the Hebrew for chshad (the second half of the noun) represents the first part of Casdim, ‘the Chaldeans,’ and Arpachshad may be intended as the originator of that people who are not otherwise mentioned in the list.” Lexicographers Koehler and Baumgartner (Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, p. 89) relate the name to the country referred to as “Arrapachitis” in the writings of Ptolemy, a land situated between Urmia and Lake Van, hence in the region of Armenia.

ARPAD

(Arʹpad).

A royal city of N Syria always associated in the Bible with the city of Hamath. Arpad has been identified with Tell Erfad about twenty-five miles (40 kilometers) NW of Aleppo. Situated on the road leading S to Hamath and Damascus, it came under frequent attack from the Assyrians and was eventually conquered by Tiglath-pileser III and later by Sargon. Thus Sargon’s son, Sennacherib, when threatening Jerusalem in 732 B.C.E., had his spokesman Rabshakeh refer to the fate of Arpad as an evidence of the inability of the gods of the nations to resist Assyria’s mighty power. (2 Ki. 18:34; 19:12, 13) The prophet Isaiah had earlier foretold such boasting. (Isa. 10:9; 36:19; 37:13) Later Jeremiah prophesied that Hamath and Arpad would become ashamed and disintegrate before the “bad report,” evidently concerning the conquests of Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar.—Jer. 49:23.

ARROW

See ARMS, ARMOR.

ARROW SNAKE

[Heb., qip·pohzʹ].

A snake so called from its darting and springing on its prey, in the manner of the rattlesnake. The Hebrew root from which the name is derived means “to jump” or “leap.” The arrow snake is mentioned in the prophecy of Isaiah (34:15) as one of the creatures to inhabit Edom. This would emphasize the fact that Edom was to become such a desolate ruin that it would become a safe place for the arrow snake to ‘make its nest and lay eggs and hatch them and gather them together under its shadow.’ Most snakes lay eggs, and this text may refer to the practice of some snakes of coiling around their eggs. Says H. W. Parker in his book Snakes (pp. 105, 106): “Coiling around the eggs which is also practiced by several cobras and kraits and some pit-vipers assists incubation by interposing a thermal insulation layer and so maintaining a more uniform temperature, but its major advantage undoubtedly lies in the protection it gives against marauders.”

Albert Barnes says: “Bochart in Hieroz. t. ii. lib. iii. c. xi. pp. 408-419, has examined the meaning of the word [qip·pohz’] at length, and comes to the conclusion that it means the serpent which the Greeks called acontias, and the Latins jaculus:—the arrow-snake.”—The Book of the Prophet Isaiah, pp. 339, 340.

ART

Art, as it relates to painting, sculpture and design, receives relatively little attention in the Bible. Yet man’s life began, not in a barren field, but in a garden, a paradise with trees not only “good for food” but also “desirable to one’s sight.” (Gen. 2:9) Man was made to appreciate beauty, and the unsurpassed beauty, artistry and design manifest in creation—flowers, trees, mountains, valleys, lakes, waterfalls, birds, animals, as well as in the human form itself—evoke praise of their divine Creator. (Ps. 139:14; Eccl. 3:11; Song of Sol. 2:1-3, 9, 13, 14; 4:1-5, 12-15; 5:11-15; Rom. 1:20) Art, as here discussed, implies, basically, the representation of such things by use of various materials and the use of different forms and expression.

Already in Abraham’s time the Bible makes mention of gifts of a “gold nose ring,” golden bracelets, and other articles of silver and gold, bestowed on Rebekah. (Gen. 24:22, 53) The Royal Tombs of Ur, in which city Abraham once lived, have given up many exquisite ornaments of high artistic skill. However, most of the art objects recovered through archaeological explorations in the lands of Mesopotamia, Assyria, Palestine, Egypt and adjacent regions seem to bear some relation to the idolatrous pagan religions or the proud political rulers, thus indicating an early perversion of the use of art.

Sumeria is suggested as the area where sculpture or carving in relief or in the round began. Also, in southern Mesopotamia, in a temple, were found the earliest fresco paintings (that is, painting on a freshly plastered surface before it dries). Terra-cotta figurines found in an early stratum of the city of Ur manifest excessive emphasis placed on sex. Astarte figurines uncovered in all lands of the Fertile Crescent manifest the lewdness associated with pagan cultic rites. The ancient Assyrians carved out enormous stone reliefs depicting the exploits of their monarchs, and produced massive winged statues for their royal palaces.

The Egyptians, by contrast, were exceptionally skillful in depicting lifelike people and scenes and showed enthusiasm and verve for drawing and making designs of all manner of animals, birds, plants and objects of the Nile valley. Their bright-colored paintings on walls often presented cheerful scenes of feasting and social activities, work and play, as drawn from city and farm.

The island of Crete with its Minoan culture produced abundant fresco paintings during the second millennium B.C.E. In Palestine itself, excavations at Teleilat Ghassul in the lower Jordan valley revealed the use of mineral pigments to produce fresco wall paintings of geometric patterns in black, red and yellow ocher, dark red and white. The work is considered to be from before the time of Abraham.

VARIETY OF MATERIALS

Glass appears to have been produced as far back as the second millennium B.C.E. by the Egyptians and perhaps the Phoenicians. Yet, evidently it originated in Mesopotamia, where pieces of well-made glass have been found believed to date from as early as the third millennium B.C.E. Job (c. 1600 B.C.E.) spoke of glass as being very precious. (Job 28:17) Though opaque, it was used in making animal figurines, perfume boxes, necklaces and other jewelry. The Romans were among the first to produce transparent glass.—Compare Revelation 4:6; see GLASS.

Thus the ancient artists worked with a considerable variety of materials, including clay, terra-cotta, wood, bronze or copper, iron, gold, silver, precious and semiprecious gems, glass, ivory, limestone and marble.

HEBREW ART

There is little material evidence remaining to present any clear picture of Hebrew art, yet art appreciation is manifest in the Bible record. On coming out of Egypt the people brought with them gold and silver articles obtained from the Egyptians. (Ex. 12:35) They gladly contributed such items for the decoration of the tabernacle in the wilderness. (Ex. 35:21-24) The work of producing the tabernacle with its decorations and equipment gave outlet for their artistic ability in woodworking, metalworking, embroidery, jewel work and design, Bezalel and Oholiab particularly taking the lead and instructing. It is notable that credit for their artistic ability is given to Jehovah.—Ex. 35:30-35; 36:1, 2.

Prior to the tabernacle work, Aaron had employed artistic ability for a perverse use in using a graving tool to make a molten image of a calf for worship. (Ex. 32:3, 4) Moses (or someone assigned by him) also showed such ability, though properly, when making the serpent of copper at a later time. (Num. 21:9) However, the provisions in the Law forbidding the making of images for worship, while not prohibiting all representational art, doubtless exercised a restrictive influence on painting or sculpturing among the Hebrews. (Ex. 20:4, 5) In view of the gross idolatry so prevalent in all nations and the widespread use of art to foster such idolatry, it is evident that paintings or carvings of figures, human or animal, would be viewed as suspect by those keeping the Law provisions and those charged with enforcing it. (Deut. 4:15-19; 7:25, 26) Even the cherubs of the tabernacle were covered over with a cloth when being transported and thus were hid from the gaze of the populace (Num. 4:5, 6, 19, 20), while those of the later temple were seen only by the high priest on one day a year. (1 Ki. 6:23-28; Heb. 9:6, 7) Additionally, after their entry and establishment in the Promised Land, the basically agricultural life of the Israelites was seldom such as allowed for the leisure time and funds necessary for extensive artwork.

During the period of the judges the only artwork indicated was involved in apostate religious practices.—Judg. 2:13; 6:25; 8:24-27; 17:3-6; 18:14.

Artwork under the monarchy

While the ancient nation of Israel is not renowned today for its works of art, yet the evidence indicates that, when occasion arose, they were able to produce work of artistic quality such as gained wide attention and admiration. The prophet Ezekiel depicts the manner in which Jehovah adorned and beautified Jerusalem so that “‘a name began to go forth among the nations because of your prettiness, for it was perfect because of my splendor that I placed upon you,’ is the utterance of the Lord Jehovah.” (Ezek. 16:8-14) However, the succeeding verses (15-18, 25) show that such prettiness was put to a perverted use, as Jerusalem prostituted herself with the surrounding political nations. Jeremiah, too, describes those looking on Jerusalem after her fall to Babylon as saying: “Is this the city of which they used to say, ‘It is the perfection of prettiness, an exultation for all the earth’?” (Lam. 2:15; compare Psalm 48:2; 50:2; Isaiah 52:1.) The temple built by Solomon was evidently an artistic work of consummate beauty and is called a “house of holiness and beauty.”—Isa. 64:11; 60:13.

In dealing with the construction of the temple in King Solomon’s time, much comment has been made in reference works of the assumed lack of artistic skill on the part of the Israelites, to the point of giving practically all the credit to the Phoenicians. The record, however, shows that only one artisan was requested of the Phoenicians by Solomon, aside from the lumbermen employed in King Hiram’s own forests of Lebanon and the stone quarriers. (1 Ki. 5:6, 18; 2 Chron. 2:7-10) This artisan, also named Hiram, was an Israeli-Phoenician skilled in working with