the funeral procession that went from Egypt to Machpelah, the burial place that Abraham had purchased. (Gen. 50:7-14) As a means of transportation, chariots were also employed by Kings Rehoboam and Ahab, Naaman the Syrian army chief and the Ethiopian official who invited the evangelist Philip to ride with him on the road down to Gaza. (1 Ki. 12:18; 18:44, 45; 2 Ki. 5:21, 26; Acts 8:28-31, 38) Richly decorated and shaded chariots carried victorious rulers in processions. Sacred chariots and the horses that drew them were dedicated to sun worship by apostate Judean rulers, and were probably used in ceremonial driving to meet the rising sun. (2 Ki. 23:11) At a later date, chariot races became popular among the Greeks and Romans.

In a figurative and prophetic sense, chariots are symbols of war just like the bow and sword. (Isa. 21:7, 9; Zech. 9:10) “The war chariots of God” are said to be “in tens of thousands, thousands over and over again,” denoting God’s invincible power to destroy his enemies.—Ps. 68:17; 2 Ki. 6:17.

CHARIOT CITIES

Cities of ancient times set apart as places to station chariots, particularly chariots of war. (2 Chron. 1:14; 9:25) Solomon had various of such cities.—1 Ki. 9:17-19; 10:26; 2 Chron. 8:5, 6.

CHARM

The Hebrew word hhen has the meaning of favor, charm or elegance, in form and conduct, and is generally rendered “favor” (Gen. 6:8), though in certain instances is translated “charm.” For example, a prostitute may be “attractive with charm” (Nah. 3:4), but as observed in the Proverbs: “Charm may be false, and prettiness may be vain; but the woman that fears Jehovah is the one that procures praise for herself.” Also, “a woman of charm is the one that takes hold of glory.” (Prov. 31:30; 11:16; see also Proverbs 5:18, 19.) Divine wisdom and understanding can be a real ornamental charm (Prov. 3:21, 22; 4:7-9), as is also true of proper speech. (Ps. 45:2; Prov. 22:11) When the Jews returned from exile in Babylon, Governor Zerubbabel was encouraged to press forward with the temple building, being assured that with the laying of the headstone, “there will be shoutings to it: ‘How charming! How charming!’”—Zech. 4:7.

Additionally, the English word “charm” has an altogether different meaning than noted above. It can also mean a magical formula spoken, sung or written as a spell, or an object kept or worn by a person in the belief that it has occult power either for good or for protection against evil. Such spiritistic practices were among “the detestable things” that Jehovah forbade his people to indulge in. (Deut. 18:9-11; Isa. 3:1-3) The ancient Babylonians, Egyptians and others were notorious for their trust in charms and the casting of spells.—Isa. 19:3; 47:9, 12.

Written charms were also thought to have power to ward off evil spirits, or the evil eye. Magical words and sayings were engraved on amulets (see AMULET) made of lead, gold, precious stones, or even leather, and these “good luck” trinkets were worn on the head, or around the neck, arms and ankles as a protection to the wearer. Sometimes mystic words were put on plaques and hung over the doors of houses. Even to this day, the “mezuzah” on the doorposts at the entrance of Jewish homes is a relic of this ancient pagan custom. M’Clintock & Strong’s Cyclopœdia (Vol. VI, p. 208) says: “Like the Greeks and Romans, who attached amulets to the jambs of the doors, and ascribed to them magic power, the Jews from a very early period believed that the Mezuzah guarded the house against the entrance of diseases and evil spirits, as may be seen from the remarks in the Talmud.” (See MEZUZAH.) In the books “of those who practiced magical arts” at Ephesus, there were probably written some of the spellbinding magical formulas. (Acts 19:19) More recently “lucky bowls” for drinking purposes, inscribed with words from the Koran, have replaced older charm pieces in modern Egypt.

Sometimes amulets or trinkets, even without an inscription, took on the attributes of a charm and were worn for protection against harm. “The most popular of the amulets worn as a protection against the evil eye were of phallic import. Any such amulet was called a fascinum, probably after the Roman lascivious god Fascinus. . . . The ancient Romans, almost without exception, wore in plain view, on their persons, amulets and charms of phallic form. . . . Even children had phallic emblems hung upon their bodies and attached to their dress.”—Phallic Worship, George R. Scott, pp. 107, 109.

It is said that by the time of Christ the rabbis attached magic power to the correct pronunciation of the Tetragrammaton. Hence, common use of the name was suppressed. One of the Talmud fables was to the effect that Jesus’ miracles were made possible because of his knowing the secret pronunciation of the divine name.

SNAKE CHARMING

So-called snake charming is another form of spiritism, and is a survival of the ancient cult of serpent worshipers. The charmer is supposed to cast a spell over the serpent, often a hooded cobra, so it appears enchanted with the playing of music, usually on a flute or pipe instrument. Snakes are not deaf or hard of hearing, as some may think, but as Psalm 58:4, 5 implies, they are able to hear the voice of charmers as well as the music. One might think that it is a mere trick of training the snake as one would train an animal or bird, by placing it in a basket with a lid, playing soft music, quickly dropping the lid if any attempt is made to escape, until the snake finally learns to raise itself upright in obedience to the music without trying to escape. While this may be true in some instances, it appears that snake charming by a devout occultist is more than a simple circus trick. Asked by what power he was able to charm snakes, and whether it was a form of hypnotism, a “skilled charmer” (Isa. 3:3) by the name of Sheik Moussa explained that spiritistic forces were involved, for, as he said:

“By the honour of Islam, I can only say that it is a power which is passed down from master to disciple at initiation. To utter the invocations alone will not be sufficient to conquer the snakes. The talismans, prayers and commands are all necessary and great helps, as is also the secret invocation which is communicated to the disciple for mental use only, but the principal power to charm the snakes comes from this force which is given over to the pupil by his teacher . . . the disciple receives the power over snakes which is invisibly passed into him. It is this force which really enables him to control the snakes.”—A Search in Secret Egypt, Paul Brunton, Sixth printing, 1953, p. 248.

Attesting to the antiquity of this spiritistic practice is its mention in the Bible.—Ps. 58:4, 5; Eccl. 10:11; Jer. 8:17.

CHEBAR

(Cheʹbar) [perhaps, powerful, mighty].

A “river” in the “land of the Chaldeans” near which Jews of the community of Tel-abib were exiled. (Ezek. 1:1-3) In 613 B.C.E. it was the site of the prophet Ezekiel’s first recorded vision, the stunning effects of which lasted seven days, and of his commissioning as “a watchman . . . to the house of Israel.” (Ezek. 1:1–3:21) Similar visions on later occasions reminded the prophet of his experience at Chebar.—Ezek. 10:15, 20, 22; 43:3.

Some commentators have advanced the view that the Chebar may have been the modern Khabur, which enters the Euphrates about 290 miles (466.6 kilometers) N of Babylon. However, it should be noted that the exiles taken by Nebuchadnezzar’s forces were removed to “Babylon” (2 Ki. 24:16; 2 Chron. 36:20) and the river Chebar is spoken of as being “in the land of the Chaldeans” (Ezek. 1:3), terms which designate lower or southern Mesopotamia, not an area as far N as the modern Khabur River.

Most scholars agree that when speaking of the “river Chebar” Ezekiel used the Hebrew term na·harʹ (usually rendered “river”) apparently in its widest sense to include the numerous Babylonian canals that once intersected the fertile area between the lower courses of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. This usage would be consistent with the corresponding Babylonian word that also describes either a river or a canal. Engineers are believed to have devised Babylon’s impressive irrigational canal system early in Mesopotamian history to control the otherwise destructive Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, which started rising during the rainy season each year, not only causing destructive floods, but depositing layers of soil-ruining salt over agricultural areas. Many of these canals were also broad enough for large sailing vessels, serving thereby to enhance Babylon’s already renowned commercial and economic position.—See CANALS.

Which canal of the vast network that laced Mesopotamia is the Biblical river Chebar cannot be determined with certainty. Some hold that since the Hebrew K^evarʹ (Chebar) may be derived from a word meaning ‘to be great or mighty,’ this would fit Babylonia’s Nahr Malcha or “Royal River,” an ancient, broad, deep canal connecting the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Although apparently first dug in the days of Hammurabi, it was reopened by Nebuchadnezzar and is said to have been large enough to afford passage to merchant ships. The Nahr Malcha was rated one of the chief canals of Babylonia, running from a point N of Babylon on the Euphrates to Opis near Seleucia at the Tigris.

Most modern Biblical geographers, however, prefer some connection of the “river Chebar” with the Shatt en-Nil, which has been identified with the naru Kabari (or “Grand Canal”) mentioned in cuneiform contract tablets found at the city of Nippur, about fifty-three miles (85.3 kilometers) SE of Babylon. The Shatt en-Nil branches off the Euphrates above Babylon and runs in a SE direction, passing near Nippur, to rejoin the Euphrates S of Ur, about 150 miles (241.4 kilometers) below Babylon. Considered the canal par excellence of ancient Babylonia proper, it is said to have been fifteen to twenty feet (4.6 to 6.1 meters) deep in places, a sufficient depth to make it navigable by certain vessels. There are indications that Jews may have lived in this area about the time of the exile. Cuneiform tablets, believed to be from the archives of a Babylonian brokerage firm of the fifth century B.C.E. and containing many Jewish names among their list of clientele, have been found at Nippur along with the tablets that mention the naru Kabari.

The identification of the Chebar with the Shatt en-Nil is, of course, not positive. Shiftings and floodings of the Euphrates River are known to have greatly altered the topography of the country over the centuries. Skilled archaeologists admit uncertainty as to where the ancient canals lay, and they acknowledge that ruins of canals found may date back only to the Arab rule of the Middle Ages. This makes any definite locating of the ancient “river Chebar” an impossibility at this time.

CHEDORLAOMER

(Ched·or·la·oʹmer).

A king of ancient Elam who, prior to Abraham’s entry into the Promised Land in 1943 B.C.E., had extended his power westward to the borders of Egypt. After twelve years of servitude, five kings near the southern end of the Dead Sea rebelled against their eastern overlord. In the fourteenth year, Chedorlaomer and three allies, Amraphel of Shinar, Arioch from Ellasar and Tidal of Goiim, came W to put down the rebellion. Beginning in the N and sweeping S, they annihilated all the cities along the trade routes E of the Jordan, and S of the Dead Sea in territory later occupied by the Amalekites. It was then an easy matter to put to flight the five kings that formed the core of the insurrection.

Among Chedorlaomer’s captives was Abraham’s nephew Lot, who had been living nearby. Abraham, learning of this, quickly set out in hot pursuit with 318 of his armed servants. At Dan they surprised the enemy’s far superior forces, and, successfully pursuing them as far as Hobah north of Damascus, recovered Lot and his possessions.—Gen. 14:1-17.

The name Chedorlaomer itself has not been found in listings of ancient rulers of Babylonia. It is recognized as Elamite. Kudur, a possible variation of Chedor, appears in many compound names. Lagamar, bearing a resemblance to laomer, was an Elamite deity. Some therefore conclude that Chedorlaomer means “servant of Lagamar.”

CHEEK

The Bible speaks of striking the cheek, not so much to inflict physical harm, but to chastise, reproach or insult. Thus Jehovah’s prophet Micaiah was struck on the cheek for prophesying bad consequences against wicked King Ahab of Israel. (1 Ki. 22:24; 2 Chron. 18:23) Job was reproachfully struck on the cheeks by those who disrespected and ridiculed him during his trial at Satan’s hands.—Job 16:10.

The prophets Isaiah and Micah prophesied relative to the Messiah’s being struck on the cheek and the hair being pulled from the cheeks, all significant of the bitter reproach that his enemies would heap upon him. (Isa. 50:6; Mic. 5:1) This was fulfilled on Jesus Christ by the Jews at his trial before the Sanhedrin and by the Roman soldiers later on, just before he was put to death on the torture stake. (Matt. 26:67, 68; John 18:22, 23; 19:3) But Jesus did not retaliate in kind nor suffer loss of equilibrium and answer with bitter, angry words.

Jesus had given his disciples counsel: “You heard that it was said, ‘Eye for eye and tooth for tooth.’ However, I say to you: Do not resist him that is wicked; but whoever slaps you on your right cheek, turn the other also to him.” (Matt. 5:38, 39) Here Jesus was not teaching pacifism nor denying the right of self-defense from bodily harm, but he was teaching that a Christian does not need to pay back blow for blow, retaliating, taking vengeance. He was inculcating the principle of avoiding quarrels by not replying or reacting in kind. A slap on the cheek is not intended to injure physically but only to insult or provoke into a fight. Jesus did not say that if someone strikes a Christian on the jaw that he should get up off the floor and hold the other side of his face for a target. What Jesus was saying was that if anyone tried to provoke a Christian into a fight or argument by either bitterly slapping him with an open hand or stinging him with insulting words it would be wrong to retaliate. This is in harmony with the statements of the apostles, giving further emphasis to this principle.—Rom. 12:17-21; 1 Pet. 3:9; see FACE.

CHEESE

The first reference to cheese making was about 3,600 years ago when Job in poetic language figuratively described how he had been formed in his mother’s womb, saying to the Grand Creator: “Did you not proceed to pour me out as milk itself and like cheese to curdle me?”—Job 10:10.

Making cheese differed from making butter; the latter was obtained by churning. To make cheese in ancient times milk was quickly curdled with rennet from an animal’s stomach or with juice of certain leaves or roots. After curdling, the whey was drained off and the fresh curds were eaten.

David was instructed to take “ten portions of milk” to the chief of the thousand under whom his brothers served in Saul’s army. (1 Sam. 17:17, 18) The literal reading of the original is “ten cuts of milk,” which may have meant “ten fresh-milk