ROME

The once-small city in Latium that became the government seat of the greatest world empire in ancient Bible times; today, it is the capital of Italy. Rome is located inland some fifteen miles (24 kilometers) up the Tiber River, on both banks, about halfway down the W side of the seven-hundred-mile- (1,126-kilometer-) long Italian Peninsula.

Just when Rome was founded, and by whom, is shrouded in legend and mythology. Tradition says it was in 753 B.C.E. by a certain Romulus, its first king, but there are graves and other evidence indicating it was inhabited at a much earlier time. The first known settlements were built on seven hills on the E side of the Tiber River. According to tradition the Palatine was the site of the oldest settlement. The other six hills located around Palatine (beginning in the N and turning clockwise) were Quirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Caelian, Aventine and Capitoline.

In time the marshy valleys between the hills were drained and in these valuable areas many dwellings, forums and circuses were built. According to Pliny the Elder, in 73 C.E. the walls surrounding the city were some thirteen miles (21 kilometers) long. Like all great cities Rome in time expanded outward. The hills and valleys to the W side of the Tiber were annexed, including the more than a hundred acres (40 hectares) occupied today by the Vatican. Before the great fire of Nero’s time, according to conservative estimates, the population of the city was well over a million people.

ROME’S POLITICAL IMAGE

Over the centuries Rome experimented with many types of political rule. Some institutions were adaptations from other nations; some were innovations of her own. Rome’s political complexion kept changing as various styles of rule came and went. These included coalitions of patriarchal chieftains, kingships, governments concentrated in the hands of a few families of noble birth, dictatorships, different forms of republican rule in which the power conferred on the senators, consuls and triumvirates (three-man governmental coalitions) varied, with typical party struggles between classes and factions. In the latter part of the empire there was a series of emperors. As is common with human governments, Rome’s political history was mottled with hatred, jealousy, intrigue and murder, with many plots and counterplots generated from internal friction and external wars.

Domination of the world by Rome was a gradual development. First, her influence spread over the entire Italian Peninsula and eventually around the Mediterranean and far beyond. The name of the city became practically synonymous with that of the empire.

In international affairs Rome reached the zenith of her glory under the Caesars. Heading this list was Julius Caesar, made dictator in 49 B.C.E. and murdered by conspirators in 44. After an interval in which a triumvirate attempted to hold the reins of power, Octavian finally became the sole ruler of the Roman Empire (31 B.C.E.-14 C.E.). In 27 B.C.E. he succeeded in becoming emperor, having himself proclaimed “Augustus.” It was during the rule of Augustus that Jesus was born in 2 B.C.E. (Luke 2:1-7) The successor to Augustus, Tiberius (14-37 C.E.), was ruling during Jesus’ ministry. (Luke 3:1, 2, 21-23) Next came Gaius (Caligula) (37-41 C.E.) and Claudius (41-54 C.E.), the latter issuing a decree expelling the Jews from Rome. (Acts 18:1, 2) Nero’s rule followed (54-68 C.E.), and it was to him that Paul appealed his case.—Acts 25:11, 12, 21.

Roman emperors in the order of succession after Nero (through the first century) were Galba (68-69 C.E.), Otho and Vitellius (69), Vespasian (69-79), during whose reign Jerusalem was destroyed, Titus (79-81), who previously had directed the successful assault on Jerusalem, Domitian (81-96), under whose rule, tradition says, John was exiled to the penal island of Patmos, Nerva (96-98) and Trajan (98-117). It was under Trajan that the empire reached its greatest limits, the boundaries by then extending far out in all directions—to the Rhine and the North Sea, the Danube, the Euphrates, the cataracts of the Nile, the great African Desert and the Atlantic on the W.

During the declining years of the Roman Empire, Constantine the Great was emperor (306-337 C.E.). After seizing control he transferred the capital to Byzantium (Constantinople). In the next century Rome fell, in 476, and the German warlord Odoacer became its first “barbarian” king.

CITY LIFE AND CONDITIONS

Administration of city government was divided into fourteen districts under Augustus, with a magistrate chosen annually by lot to govern each district. Seven fire-fighting brigades called vigiles were organized, each responsible for two of the districts. Just outside the NE city limits was stationed a special force of about 10,000, known as the Praetorian or Imperial Guard, for the protection of the emperor. There were also three “urban cohorts,” a kind of city police force, to maintain law and order in Rome. Prostitution was regulated like other business enterprises. A prostitute had to be identified by distinctive garb, had to be registered with the government, and had to pay a special tax.

The wealthy and influential often lived in palatial homes on the hills, homes maintained by large households of servants and slaves, sometimes numbering into the hundreds. Down in the valleys the common people were crowded together in enormous insulae or tenement houses several stories high, limited in height by Augustus to seventy feet (21 meters). These tenement blocks were separated by narrow, crooked, dirty streets filled with the customary traffic and corruption prevalent in big cities.

It was in these poor sections that the historic fire of 64 C.E. resulted in the greatest suffering and loss of life. Tacitus describes the confusion it caused, “the wailings of terror-stricken women, the feebleness of age, the helpless inexperience of childhood.” (Annals, XV, 38) Only four out of the fourteen districts of Rome were spared.

There were very few persons in Rome who could be called “middle class”; the wealth rested with a small minority. When Paul first reached Rome, perhaps half the population were slaves, brought there as prisoners of war, as condemned criminals or as children sold by parents, slaves with no legal rights. The greater part of the free half of the population were paupers who practically lived off government subsidies.

Two things, food and entertainment, were provided by the state to keep these poor people from rioting, hence the satirical phrase, panem et circenses (bread and circuses), inferring that this was all that was needed to satisfy the poor of Rome. From 58 B.C.E. on, grain was generally distributed free as well as water, brought many miles into the city by aqueducts. Wine was a cheap commodity. For the enjoyment of those so inclined there were libraries available. For the entertainment of the general populace there were public baths and gymnasiums, as well as the theaters and circuses. The theatrical performances consisted of Greek and Roman plays, dances and pantomimes. One theater held 40,000. In the great amphitheaters and circuses exciting games were held, chiefly spectacular chariot races and desperate gladiatorial contests in which men and beasts fought to the death. The Circus Maximus had a capacity of more than 150,000 persons. Admission to the games was free.

The high cost of these government expenses was not borne by the populace of Rome, for after the conquest of Macedonia in 167 B.C.E., Roman citizens were tax free. Instead, the provinces were heavily taxed, both directly and indirectly.—Matt. 22:17-21.

FOREIGN INFLUENCE

In many ways Rome proved to be a great melting pot of races, languages, cultures and ideas. Out of the forge of Roman politics the code of Roman law gradually emerged, laws that defined the rights and limitations of governments, courts and magistrates, and provided legal devices such as citizenship for the protection of human rights. (Acts 25:16) Citizenship was extended to Rome’s confederate cities and to various colonies of the empire. It carried with it many advantages (Acts 16:37-39; 22:25, 26), and, if not obtained by birth, could be purchased. (Acts 22:28) In this and other ways, Rome sought to Romanize the territories she won and thus to strengthen her position as mistress of the empire. Evidences of this are found in the “Romance languages” derived from Latin (today primarily Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Romanian).

One of the best examples of outside influence on Rome is found in her ruins of past architectural glories. Everywhere the visitor to this museum city sees how she borrowed from the Greeks and others. The so-called Roman arch, which she used to great advantage, was not her own engineering discovery. Rome’s successes as a builder were also due in large measure to her use of a primitive form of concrete as mortar and to make artificial stones. This concretus (from concresco, meaning “to grow together”) was a mixture of lime and volcanic ash.

The building program of Rome began in earnest in the last century of the republic and was thereafter given special impetus by the emperors. Augustus said he found Rome a city of bricks but left it a city of marble. For the most part, the marble was a veneer over the structural brick or concrete. There was a second rebuilding of the city after the conflagration of 64 C.E. Among the more notable Roman structures were the forums, temples, palaces, amphitheaters, baths, aqueducts, sewers and monuments. The great Colosseum, and some monuments, like Titus’ archway depicting the fall of Jerusalem, are still standing, or partly standing. The Romans also made a name for themselves as builders of roads and bridges throughout the empire.

There was such an influx of foreigners that the Romans complained Rome was no longer Roman. Gravitating from all quarters of the empire, they brought with them their trades, customs, traditions and religions. Whereas Latin was the official language, the international language was koi·neʹ Greek. That is why the apostle Paul wrote his letter to the Romans in Greek. Greek influence had its impact on the literature and methods of education too. Boys, and sometimes girls, were formally educated according to the Athenian system, being schooled in Greek literature and oratory, and the sons of those who could afford it were sent to one of the schools of philosophy in Athens.

RELIGION

Rome also became the recipient of every form of false worship. As historian John Lord describes it: “Superstition culminated at Rome, for there were seen the priests and devotees of all the countries that it governed,—‘the dark-skinned daughters of Isis, with drum and timbrel and wanton mien; devotees of the Persian Mithras; emasculated Asiatics; priests of Cybele, with their wild dances and discordant cries; worshippers of the great goddess Diana; barbarian captives with the rites of Teuton priests; Syrians, Jews, Chaldæan astrologers, and Thessalian sorcerers.’” (Beacon Lights of History [1912 printing], Vol. III, pp. 366, 367) Petronius, the director of entertainments at the court of Nero, in his Satires, chapter 17, wrote: “Our country is so peopled with divinities that you can find a god more easily than a man.”

Devotion to these religions, and indulgence in their wanton sex orgies, opened the door to total abandonment of moral virtue and righteousness among Romans of both low and high rank. Among the latter, Messalina, the adulterous, murderous wife of Emperor Claudius, is an example.—Tacitus’ Annals, XI, 1-34.

Outstanding among the religions of Rome was emperor worship. The Roman ruler was deified. Emperor worship was recognized especially in the provinces, temples being built in which they sacrificed to him as to a god. According to George Willis Botsford, in A History of Rome (1905 ed., pp. 214, 215), “In fact the worship of the emperor was to be the most vital force in the religion of the Roman world till the adoption of Christianity.” An inscription found in Asia Minor says of the emperor: “He is the paternal Zeus and the saviour of the whole race of man, who fulfils all prayers, even more than we ask. For land and sea enjoy peace; cities flourish; everywhere are harmony and prosperity and happiness.” This cult proved to be a chief instrument of persecution for Christians, concerning whom this writer says: “Their refusal to worship the Genius, or guardian spirit, of the emperor was naturally construed as impiety and treason.”—P. 263.

CHRISTIANITY COMES TO ROME

On the day of Pentecost, 33 C.E., there were “sojourners from Rome, both Jews and proselytes” present to witness the results of the outpouring of the holy spirit, and some of them were no doubt among the 3,000 baptized on that occasion. (Acts 2:1, 10, 41) Upon returning to Rome they doubtless preached, resulting in the formation of a very strong, active Christian congregation whose faith the apostle Paul mentioned as being “talked about throughout the whole world.” (Rom. 1:7, 8) Both Tacitus (Annals, XV, 44) and Suetonius (Nero, XVI) referred to the Christians in Rome.

Paul wrote to the Christian congregation in Rome about 56 C.E., and about three years later he arrived in Rome as a prisoner; however, he had entertained desires of visiting there sooner and under different circumstances. (Acts 19:21; Rom. 1:15; 15:22-24) But now, even though a prisoner, he was able to give a thorough witness by having people come to his house. For two years, under these conditions, he continued “preaching the kingdom of God to them and teaching the things concerning the Lord Jesus Christ with the greatest freeness of speech, without hindrance.” (Acts 28:14-31) Even the emperor’s Praetorian Guard became acquainted with the Kingdom message. (Phil. 1:12, 13) So, as it had been foretold of him, Paul ‘gave a thorough witness even in Rome.’—Acts 23:11.

During this two-year detention in Rome Paul found time to write letters, those to the Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians and Philemon. Evidently about the same time Mark wrote his Gospel account, and Luke the Acts of Apostles, likely both from Rome. Shortly before or immediately after Paul’s release, he penned his letter to the Hebrews in 61 C.E. (Heb. 13:23, 24) It was during his second imprisonment in Rome, in about 65 C.E., that Onesiphorus visited him and that Paul wrote his second letter to Timothy.—2 Tim. 1:15-17.

Though Paul, Luke, Mark, Timothy and other first-century Christians visited Rome (Phil. 1:1; Col. 4:10, 14), there is no evidence that Peter was ever in Rome, as some traditions would have it. The stories about Peter’s martyrdom in Rome are strictly traditional, with no solid historical support.—See PETER, LETTERS OF.

The city of Rome developed a very bad reputation for its persecution of Christians, particularly during the reigns of Nero and Domitian. These persecutions were attributed to two causes: (1) the great evangelizing zeal of Christians to convert others, and (2) their uncompromising stand in giving to God the things that are God’s rather than giving them to Caesar.—Mark 12:17.

ROOF CHAMBER

See HOUSE.

ROPE

See CORD, ROPE.

ROSH

[head chieftain].

1. A son of Benjamin listed among those who went into Egypt in 1728 B.C.E. with Jacob’s household, or who were born shortly thereafter. (Gen. 46:21, 26; see BENJAMIN No. 1.) The omission of his name from later lists of Benjamite families may indicate that he died childless, or that his sons merged with a different tribal family.

2. A name found in some translations of Ezekiel 38:2 and 39:1 (AS, JB, Le, LXX, Mo, Yg, Ro) viewed by some scholars as designating a barbarous people called Rosh, who are said to have lived in Russia along the Volga River N of the Taurus Mountains. In view of the meaning of the term and its application to Gog, however, it is appropriately translated as a title rather than a geographic name: “head chieftain” (NW); “chief prince” (AV, Dy, Fn, JP, RS); “great prince” (AT), “prince of the head” and “head prince” (Vg); “leader and head” (Peshitta); “head great one.”—Targums.

RUBY

A precious, transparent, rich-red gemstone that is a variety of corundum composed of aluminum oxide containing minute traces of chromium and iron oxide that impart the red color. It is very rare, slightly inferior to the diamond in hardness and, when of excellent quality and large size, it may exceed a diamond of the same size in value. Colors range from rose to the highly appraised deep bluish red often identified as “pigeon blood” red. “Ruby,” as used in the New World Translation, is translated from two Hebrew words (ʼoʹdhem; kadh·kodhʹ) that denote bright redness or extreme redness.

The first stone in the first row of gems on High Priest Aaron’s “breastpiece of judgment” was a ruby, and engraved upon it was the name of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. (Ex. 28:2, 15, 17, 21; 39:10) The “covering” of the king of Tyre consisted of the ruby and other precious stones. (Ezek. 28:12, 13) Edom was Tyre’s “merchant” for precious rubies. Commercial Tyre eagerly traded its stores for these and other goods. (Ezek. 27:2, 16) When Jehovah, the husbandly owner of Zion, comforted her and described her forthcoming beauty, he said, in part: “I will make your battlements of rubies, and your gates of fiery glowing stones.”—Isa. 54:5, 6, 11, 12.

RUDDER

A ship’s steering apparatus. Ancient sailing vessels had various styles and numbers of rudders. Some had a single steering oar. Usually, however, Greek and Roman ships had two steering paddles at the stern, each probably capable of being operated independently through a rowlock (something like an open porthole). When the vessel was anchored, the rudder oars were held out of the water by lashings or rudder bands.

“Rudder oars” (“steering-paddles,” NE) were used to guide the vessel on which Paul was sailing and which was wrecked on Malta. The anchors were cut away and before the foresail was hoisted the lashings were loosened, freeing the rudder oars to aid the sailors in directing the ship toward the beach.—Acts 27:40.

James (3:4, 5) shows the tremendous power the tongue has in controlling the direction of one’s whole body by comparing it with the relatively small rudder (or “rudder-oar,” Kingdom Interlinear Translation) of a large ship.

RUE

A plant mentioned only at Luke 11:42 with reference to the scrupulous tithing of the Pharisees. The common variety of rue (Ruta graveolens) is a strong-scented shrubby perennial with hairy stems that attains a height of about three feet (c. .9 meter). It has gray-green leaves and bears clusters of yellow flowers. Rue has been used medicinally as a stimulant and antispasmodic. During the days of Jesus’ earthly ministry rue may have been cultivated in Palestine for use in medicine and as a flavoring for food.

Instead of “rue,” the parallel account at Matthew 23:23 mentions “dill,” as does the third-century manuscript (Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 1) at Luke 11:42.

RUFUS

(Ruʹfus) [red].

1. Son of the Simon who was compelled to help carry Jesus’ torture stake, and brother of a certain Alexander.—Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26.

2. A Christian in Rome, “the chosen one in the Lord.” whom Paul greets in his letter. With endearment Paul also greets Rufus’ mother as “his mother and mine.”—Rom. 16:13.

RULER

[from Heb., ma·shalʹ, “to rule have dominion over”; Gr., arʹkhon, “ruler,” high official].

The supreme Ruler is Jehovah God, who exercises absolute sovereign authority over the universe, visible and invisible, by virtue of being the Creator and Life-giver.—Dan. 4:17, 25, 35; 1 Tim. 1:17.

The kings of the line of David on the throne of Israel ruled as representatives of Jehovah, their real, invisible King. They were, therefore, said to be God’s anointed, sitting on “Jehovah’s throne.” (1 Chron. 29:23) When Jesus Christ the “Son of David” appeared (Matt. 21:9; Luke 20:41), he was anointed, not with oil, but with holy spirit, to rule on a heavenly throne. (Acts 2:34-36) Under Jehovah, Jesus and his fellow heirs of the Kingdom constitute the government of the universe.—Rev. 14:1, 4; 20:4, 6; 22:5.

Satan the Devil and his demons are also rulers. He is spoken of as “the ruler of this world” and “ruler of the authority of the air.” (John 12:31; 14:30; Eph. 2:2) That all the governments of this world