as being “talked about throughout the whole world.” (Rom. 1:7, 8) Both Tacitus (Annals, XV, 44) and Suetonius (Nero, XVI) referred to the Christians in Rome.

Paul wrote to the Christian congregation in Rome about 56 C.E., and about three years later he arrived in Rome as a prisoner; however, he had entertained desires of visiting there sooner and under different circumstances. (Acts 19:21; Rom. 1:15; 15:22-24) But now, even though a prisoner, he was able to give a thorough witness by having people come to his house. For two years, under these conditions, he continued “preaching the kingdom of God to them and teaching the things concerning the Lord Jesus Christ with the greatest freeness of speech, without hindrance.” (Acts 28:14-31) Even the emperor’s Praetorian Guard became acquainted with the Kingdom message. (Phil. 1:12, 13) So, as it had been foretold of him, Paul ‘gave a thorough witness even in Rome.’—Acts 23:11.

During this two-year detention in Rome Paul found time to write letters, those to the Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians and Philemon. Evidently about the same time Mark wrote his Gospel account, and Luke the Acts of Apostles, likely both from Rome. Shortly before or immediately after Paul’s release, he penned his letter to the Hebrews in 61 C.E. (Heb. 13:23, 24) It was during his second imprisonment in Rome, in about 65 C.E., that Onesiphorus visited him and that Paul wrote his second letter to Timothy.—2 Tim. 1:15-17.

Though Paul, Luke, Mark, Timothy and other first-century Christians visited Rome (Phil. 1:1; Col. 4:10, 14), there is no evidence that Peter was ever in Rome, as some traditions would have it. The stories about Peter’s martyrdom in Rome are strictly traditional, with no solid historical support.—See PETER, LETTERS OF.

The city of Rome developed a very bad reputation for its persecution of Christians, particularly during the reigns of Nero and Domitian. These persecutions were attributed to two causes: (1) the great evangelizing zeal of Christians to convert others, and (2) their uncompromising stand in giving to God the things that are God’s rather than giving them to Caesar.—Mark 12:17.

ROOF CHAMBER

See HOUSE.

ROPE

See CORD, ROPE.

ROSH

[head chieftain].

1. A son of Benjamin listed among those who went into Egypt in 1728 B.C.E. with Jacob’s household, or who were born shortly thereafter. (Gen. 46:21, 26; see BENJAMIN No. 1.) The omission of his name from later lists of Benjamite families may indicate that he died childless, or that his sons merged with a different tribal family.

2. A name found in some translations of Ezekiel 38:2 and 39:1 (AS, JB, Le, LXX, Mo, Yg, Ro) viewed by some scholars as designating a barbarous people called Rosh, who are said to have lived in Russia along the Volga River N of the Taurus Mountains. In view of the meaning of the term and its application to Gog, however, it is appropriately translated as a title rather than a geographic name: “head chieftain” (NW); “chief prince” (AV, Dy, Fn, JP, RS); “great prince” (AT), “prince of the head” and “head prince” (Vg); “leader and head” (Peshitta); “head great one.”—Targums.

RUBY

A precious, transparent, rich-red gemstone that is a variety of corundum composed of aluminum oxide containing minute traces of chromium and iron oxide that impart the red color. It is very rare, slightly inferior to the diamond in hardness and, when of excellent quality and large size, it may exceed a diamond of the same size in value. Colors range from rose to the highly appraised deep bluish red often identified as “pigeon blood” red. “Ruby,” as used in the New World Translation, is translated from two Hebrew words (ʼoʹdhem; kadh·kodhʹ) that denote bright redness or extreme redness.

The first stone in the first row of gems on High Priest Aaron’s “breastpiece of judgment” was a ruby, and engraved upon it was the name of one of the twelve tribes of Israel. (Ex. 28:2, 15, 17, 21; 39:10) The “covering” of the king of Tyre consisted of the ruby and other precious stones. (Ezek. 28:12, 13) Edom was Tyre’s “merchant” for precious rubies. Commercial Tyre eagerly traded its stores for these and other goods. (Ezek. 27:2, 16) When Jehovah, the husbandly owner of Zion, comforted her and described her forthcoming beauty, he said, in part: “I will make your battlements of rubies, and your gates of fiery glowing stones.”—Isa. 54:5, 6, 11, 12.

RUDDER

A ship’s steering apparatus. Ancient sailing vessels had various styles and numbers of rudders. Some had a single steering oar. Usually, however, Greek and Roman ships had two steering paddles at the stern, each probably capable of being operated independently through a rowlock (something like an open porthole). When the vessel was anchored, the rudder oars were held out of the water by lashings or rudder bands.

“Rudder oars” (“steering-paddles,” NE) were used to guide the vessel on which Paul was sailing and which was wrecked on Malta. The anchors were cut away and before the foresail was hoisted the lashings were loosened, freeing the rudder oars to aid the sailors in directing the ship toward the beach.—Acts 27:40.

James (3:4, 5) shows the tremendous power the tongue has in controlling the direction of one’s whole body by comparing it with the relatively small rudder (or “rudder-oar,” Kingdom Interlinear Translation) of a large ship.

RUE

A plant mentioned only at Luke 11:42 with reference to the scrupulous tithing of the Pharisees. The common variety of rue (Ruta graveolens) is a strong-scented shrubby perennial with hairy stems that attains a height of about three feet (c. .9 meter). It has gray-green leaves and bears clusters of yellow flowers. Rue has been used medicinally as a stimulant and antispasmodic. During the days of Jesus’ earthly ministry rue may have been cultivated in Palestine for use in medicine and as a flavoring for food.

Instead of “rue,” the parallel account at Matthew 23:23 mentions “dill,” as does the third-century manuscript (Chester Beatty Papyrus No. 1) at Luke 11:42.

RUFUS

(Ruʹfus) [red].

1. Son of the Simon who was compelled to help carry Jesus’ torture stake, and brother of a certain Alexander.—Mark 15:21; Luke 23:26.

2. A Christian in Rome, “the chosen one in the Lord.” whom Paul greets in his letter. With endearment Paul also greets Rufus’ mother as “his mother and mine.”—Rom. 16:13.

RULER

[from Heb., ma·shalʹ, “to rule have dominion over”; Gr., arʹkhon, “ruler,” high official].

The supreme Ruler is Jehovah God, who exercises absolute sovereign authority over the universe, visible and invisible, by virtue of being the Creator and Life-giver.—Dan. 4:17, 25, 35; 1 Tim. 1:17.

The kings of the line of David on the throne of Israel ruled as representatives of Jehovah, their real, invisible King. They were, therefore, said to be God’s anointed, sitting on “Jehovah’s throne.” (1 Chron. 29:23) When Jesus Christ the “Son of David” appeared (Matt. 21:9; Luke 20:41), he was anointed, not with oil, but with holy spirit, to rule on a heavenly throne. (Acts 2:34-36) Under Jehovah, Jesus and his fellow heirs of the Kingdom constitute the government of the universe.—Rev. 14:1, 4; 20:4, 6; 22:5.

Satan the Devil and his demons are also rulers. He is spoken of as “the ruler of this world” and “ruler of the authority of the air.” (John 12:31; 14:30; Eph. 2:2) That all the governments of this world are under his power is indicated by his offering them to Jesus Christ at the price of an act of worship. (Matt. 4:8, 9) Satan gives these governments their authority. (Rev. 13:2) Within his organization the demons also exercise ruling power. They are referred to as “the world rulers of this darkness” who have exercised authority over the world powers of history, as, for example, the invisible ‘princes’ over Persia and Greece. (Eph. 6:12; Dan. 10:13, 20) Their ruler is, of course, the Devil himself.—Matt. 12:24.

In the days of Jesus’ earthly ministry Palestine was under the dual rule of the Roman Empire and the Jewish rulers, the chief body of the latter being the Great Sanhedrin, a council of seventy elders to which the Roman government granted limited authority over Jewish affairs. It is to the Jewish rulers that reference is made at John 7:26, 48; Nicodemus was one of these. (John 3:1) A presiding officer of the synagogue was called an arʹkhon. (Compare Matthew 9:18 and Mark 5:22.) The Law commanded respect for rulers. (Acts 23:5) However, the Jewish rulers became corrupt and are mentioned as the ones on whom the chief blame rested for Jesus Christ’s death.—Luke 23:13, 35; 24:20; Acts 3:17; 13:27, 28.

Arʹkhon is also applied to civil magistrates and government officials in general. (Acts 16:19, 20; Rom. 13:3) The Hebrew word segha·nimʹ, translated “rulers” (AV), “deputies” (Ro), “deputy rulers” (NW) is used with reference to subordinate Jewish rulers under the Persian Empire (Neh. 2:16; 5:7), also of ones holding authority under the kings of Media, Assyria and Babylon.—Jer. 51:28; Ezek. 23:12, 23; see DEPUTY.

Rulers can bring prosperity and happiness to their subjects, or poverty and suffering. (Prov. 28:15; 29:2) David quotes Jehovah God as saying: “When one ruling over mankind is righteous, ruling in the fear of God, then it is as the light of morning, when the sun shines forth, a morning without clouds.” (2 Sam. 23:3, 4) Such a ruler is Jesus Christ the Prince of Peace.—Isa. 9:6, 7.

RUMAH

(Ruʹmah) [height].

Home of Zebidah (and her father Pedaiah), a wife of King Josiah of Judah and the mother of Jehoiakim. (2 Ki. 23:34, 36) Its location is uncertain. The best possibility seems to be Khirbet Rumeh, which bears a similar name. It is situated less than fifteen miles (c. 24 kilometers) W of the Sea of Galilee and six miles (10 kilometers) N of Nazareth. But some connect Rumah with the Biblical town of Arumah, mentioned at Judges 9:41 and thought to have been located near Shechem.—See ARUMAH.

RUNNERS

Swift foot couriers or servants of a prominent person who ran before his chariot. The word is translated from the participial form of the Hebrew word ruts, “to run.” It is rendered “footmen,” “guard” and “post” in some translations. But there is another word for “footmen” or “men on foot,” namely ragh·liʹ, or, more fully, ʼish ragh·liʹ.

“Runners” can refer to any swift messengers or fleet-footed persons, such as Asahel the brother of Joab, and Ahimaaz the son of Zadok. (2 Sam. 2:18; 18:19, 23, 27) Elijah on one occasion ran some twenty-five miles (40 kilometers), to arrive from Carmel at Jezreel ahead of King Ahab’s chariot. This was because “the very hand of Jehovah proved to be upon Elijah.”—1 Ki. 18:46.

In an official sense, runners were fleet-footed men selected to run before the king’s chariot. When Absalom and, later, Adonijah, conspired to usurp the kingship, each employed fifty runners before his chariot to add prestige and dignity to his scheme. (2 Sam. 15:1; 1 Ki. 1:5) Runners served as the king’s personal force, somewhat like a modern-day bodyguard. (1 Sam. 22:17; 2 Ki. 10:25) They served as guards at the entrance to the king’s house and accompanied the king from his house to the temple. (1 Ki. 14:27, 28; 2 Ki. 11:6-8, 11; 2 Chron. 12:10) They carried messages for the king. (2 Chron. 30:6) In the days of Persian King Ahasuerus, foot couriers were apparently replaced by men riding fast post horses.—Esther 3:13, 15; 8:10, 14.

ILLUSTRATIVE USE

In the Christian Greek Scriptures there are a few references to running simply in haste. (Matt. 28:8; Mark 9:15, 25; 10:17; John 20:2) However, running is used illustratively by the apostle Paul. He wrote to the congregation at Corinth: “Do you not know that the runners in a race all run, but only one receives the prize? Run in such a way that you may attain it. Moreover, every man taking part in a contest exercises self-control in all things. Now they, of course, do it that they may get a corruptible crown, but we an incorruptible one. Therefore, the way I am running is not uncertainly; the way I am directing my blows is so as not to be striking the air; but I browbeat my body and lead it as a slave, that, after I have preached to others, I myself should not become disapproved somehow.”—1 Cor. 9:24-27.

Contestants in the Greek games were strenuously trained and discipline was rigid; diet and behavior were closely observed. The rules of the race were strictly enforced by the judges. If one came in first but had violated the rules, his running was in vain, as the apostle expressed it: “Moreover, if anyone contends even in the games, he is not crowned unless he has contended according to the rules.” (2 Tim. 2:5) Runners directed their eyes toward the prize located at the finish line. Paul ‘ran’ in this single-minded wholehearted way. (Gal. 2:2; Phil. 2:16; 3:14) Near the end of his life he was able to say: “I have fought the fine fight, I have run the course to the finish, I have observed the faith. From this time on there is reserved for me the crown of righteousness.”—2 Tim. 4:7, 8.

In discussing God’s dealings in connection with his choosing of those making up spiritual Israel, Paul explained that Israel according to the flesh counted on their fleshly relationship to Abraham. (Rom. 9:6, 7, 30-32) They thought they were the chosen ones, and ‘ran’ or pursued righteousness, but in the wrong way. Trying to establish their righteousness by their own works, they did not subject themselves to the righteousness of God. (Rom. 10:1-3) Paul shows how God’s justice is vindicated as regards his action of rejecting fleshly Israel as a nation and forming a spiritual Israel. The apostle thereby throws light upon his statement that “it depends, not upon the one wishing nor upon the one running, but upon God, who has mercy.”—Rom. 9:15, 16.

RUSH

[Heb., ʼagh·monʹ].

Any of a variety of grass-like plants commonly growing in marshes. The true rushes have round, frequently hollow, stems with three rows of grasslike leaves, and small brownish or greenish flowers. The designation ʼagh·monʹ may have included the various kinds of true rushes as well as the rushlike plants of the sedge family. Anciently, rushes were employed in starting the fire in a furnace.—Job 41:20.

At Job 41:2 “rush” may refer to a cord of twisted rushes or one spun from their fibers. The other Scriptural references to ʼagh·monʹ are illustrative. Jehovah took no delight in renegade Israel’s fasting, attended by bowing their heads ceremonially like a rush. (Isa. 58:5) At Isaiah 9:14, “rush” seems to refer to the false prophets (the “tail”) who merely spoke what the leaders of the nation of Israel (the “head” or “shoot”) wanted to hear.—Isa. 9:15; see also Isaiah 19:15, where “rush” appears to denote the Egyptians in general.

RUST

The reddish, porous, brittle coating formed on iron as when chemically attacked by moist air; by extension, the coating produced on any of various other metals by corrosion. Iron rusts, copper and silver are said to corrode, even gold can be attacked by certain acids or elements. The Hebrew word hhel·ʼahʹ,