preserved in the record. Asa heeded the words of Azariah (15:2-7) and those of his father Oded.

2. A prophet of Samaria during the overlapping reigns of Pekah of Israel and Ahaz of Judah (761-758 B.C.E.). After Israel and Syria delivered a smashing defeat to Judah, two hundred thousand captives from the southern kingdom were brought toward Samaria. Oded, however, intercepted the victorious army and warned them of God’s wrath if they enslaved their brothers. ‘After all,’ he explained, ‘it was only because of Judah’s wickedness that Jehovah permitted you to defeat them. Now do not make servants out of them and bring Jehovah’s rage upon yourselves; return the captives!’ Four Ephraimite leaders supported Oded, and the captives were cared for and repatriated.—2 Chron. 28:5-15.

OFFERINGS

From early times men have presented offerings to God. In the first recorded instance, Adam’s oldest son Cain presented the firstfruits of the ground, and his younger son Abel, the firstlings of his flock. Evidently the attitudes and motives of the two brothers were different, for God approved Abel’s offering but looked with disfavor on Cain’s. (Later, the Law covenant provided for both animal and grain offerings.) Abel must have had faith in God’s promise of liberation through the promised Seed (Gen. 3:15) and evidently recognized the need of the sacrifice of a life for redemption from sin. Acknowledging himself as a sinner, he was led by faith to present an offering requiring shedding of blood, thereby accurately foreshadowing the real sacrifice for sins, Jesus Christ.—Gen. 4:1-4; Heb. 11:4.

IN PATRIARCHAL SOCIETY

The family head Noah, on coming out of the ark, offered a thanksgiving sacrifice to Jehovah that was “restful” (soothing, tranquilizing), after which Jehovah made the “rainbow” covenant with Noah and his offspring. (Gen. 8:18-22; 9:8-16) We read later of the faithful patriarchs presenting offerings to Jehovah. (Gen. 8:20; 31:54) Job, as family head, acted as priest for his family, sacrificing burnt offerings to God in their behalf. (Job 1:5) The most notable and significant of ancient sacrifices was Abraham’s attempt to offer up Isaac, at Jehovah’s direction. Jehovah, after observing Abraham’s faith and obedience, kindly provided a ram as substitute. This act of Abraham foreshadowed Jehovah’s offering of his only-begotten Son Jesus Christ.—Gen. 22:1-14; Heb. 11:17-19.

UNDER THE LAW

The sacrifices commanded under the Law covenant all pointed forward to Jesus Christ and his sacrifice, or to benefits that flow from that sacrifice. (Heb. 8:3-5; 9:9; 10:5-10) As Jesus Christ was a perfect man, so all animal sacrifices were to be sound, unblemished specimens. (Lev. 1:3, 10; 3:1) Both the Israelite and the temporary resident who worshiped Jehovah were included in presenting the various offerings.—Num. 15:26, 29.

Burnt offerings

Burnt offerings were presented in their entirety to God; no part of the animal being retained by the worshiper. (Compare Judges 11:30, 31, 39, 40.) They constituted an appeal to Jehovah to accept, or to signify acceptance of, the sin offering that sometimes accompanied them. As a “burnt offering” Jesus Christ gave himself wholly, fully. Certain features of these offerings were:

I. Regular times offered: Every morning and evening (Ex. 29:38-42; Lev. 6:8-13; Num. 28:3-8); every sabbath day (Num. 28:9, 10); first day of month (Num. 10:10); Passover and seven days of unfermented cakes (Lev. 23:6-8; Num. 28:16-19, 24); Day of Atonement (Lev. 16:3, 5, 29, 30; Num. 29:7-11); Pentecost (Lev. 23:16-18: Num. 28:26-31); each day of festival of booths. (Num. 29:12-39)

II. Other occasions: At consecration of priesthood (Lev. 8:18-21; see INSTALLATION); at installation of Levites (Num. 8:6, 11, 12); in connection with making covenants (Ex. 24:5; see COVENANT); with communion offerings and certain guilt and sin offerings (Lev. 5:6, 7, 10; 8:18; 16:3, 5); in performing vows (Num. 15:3, 8); in connection with purifications. (Lev. 12:6-8; 14:2, 30, 31; 15:13-15, 30)

III. Animals offered and procedure: Bull, ram, male goat, turtledove or male pigeon. (Lev. 1:3, 5, 10, 14) If it was an animal, the offerer laid his hand on the animal’s head (acknowledging the offering as his offering, and for him, in his behalf). (Lev. 1:4) The animal was slaughtered; the blood was sprinkled round about upon the altar of burnt offering (Lev. 1:5, 11); the animal was skinned and cut up into its parts; its intestines (no offal was burned on altar) and shanks were washed; the head and other body parts were all put on altar (the officiating priest received the skin [Lev. 7:8]). (Lev. 1:6-9, 12, 13) If it was a bird, the crop and feathers were removed, and the head and body were burned on the altar. (Lev. 1:14-17)

Communion offerings (peace offerings)

Communion offerings acceptable to Jehovah denoted peace with him. The worshiper and his household partook (in the courtyard of the tabernacle; according to tradition, booths were set up around the inside of the curtain surrounding the courtyard; in the temple, dining rooms were provided). The officiating priest received a portion, and the priests on duty, another portion. Jehovah, in effect, received the pleasing smoke of the burning fat. The blood, representing the life, was given to God as his. Therefore the priests, the worshipers and Jehovah were as if together at the meal, signifying peaceful relationships. The person partaking while in a state of uncleanness (any of the uncleannesses mentioned in the Law) or who ate the flesh after it had been kept beyond the prescribed time (in the warm climate it would begin to putrefy) was to be cut off from his people. (Lev. 7:20, 21) He defiled or desecrated the meal, due to being either unclean himself or eating that which was foul before Jehovah God, showing disrespect for sacred things.—Lev. 7:16-19; 19:5-8.

The Lord’s Evening Meal (Memorial or Last Supper) is a communion meal. (1 Cor. 10:16) Those in “the new covenant by virtue of [Jesus’] blood” share with one another in faith, partaking of the emblems representing Jesus’ body and blood. They share also with Jehovah as Author of the arrangement. These are seeking Jehovah’s approval and are at peace, not only with one another, but also with Jehovah through Jesus Christ. In line with the requirement of cleanness for sharers in a communion meal, Paul warns that the Christian should examine himself before the Memorial meal. To treat the occasion or the emblems of wine and unleavened bread lightly or with contempt would be desecration of sacred things, meriting adverse judgment.—1 Cor. 11:25, 27-29; see LORD’S EVENING MEAL.

In the thanksgiving offering, which was a communion offering praising God for his provisions and loving-kindnesses, flesh and both leavened and unleavened bread were eaten. The worshiper therefore celebrated the occasion using what might be termed “daily food.” (However, no leavened bread was at any time put upon the altar as being offered to God.) And, in this expression of thanks and praise to God, the flesh had to be enjoyed that day, not the next. (In other communion offerings, the flesh could be eaten the second day.) (Lev. 7:11-15) This brings to mind the prayer Jesus Christ taught his followers: “Give us today our bread for this day.”—Matt. 6:11.

Features of the communion offerings are:

I. Occasions: Making covenants (Ex. 24:5); festal seasons and commencement of months (Num. 10:10; Ex. 12:2-14; Lev. 23:15-19; Num. 29:39), and other occasions.

II. Purposes: To gain approval of God; also entreaty or supplication to God in times of misfortune. (Lev. 19:5; Judg. 20:26; 21:4; 1 Sam. 13:9; 2 Sam. 24:25)

III. Animals used, and procedure: Male or female cattle, sheep, goats (no birds, since they were not deemed sufficient to constitute a sacrificial meal). (Lev. 3:1, 6, 12) The offerer laid his hand on the animal’s head; the animal was slaughtered; the priest sprinkled its blood round about upon the altar of burnt offering (Lev. 3:2, 8, 13); the fat (including the fat tail of the sheep) was put upon the altar of burnt offering (Lev. 3:3-5, 9); the breast went to the priests, the right leg to the officiating priest. (Ex. 29:26, 28; Lev. 7:28-36)

IV. Types: Thanksgiving or praise; vow (see Numbers 6:13, 14, 17); voluntary.

Sin offerings

These were all for unintentional sin, committed due to weakness of the imperfect flesh, not “with uplifted hand,” that is, not openly, proudly, purposely. (Num. 15:30, 31, NW, 1953 ed., ftn.) Various animal sacrifices, from bull to pigeon, were used, according to the position and circumstances of the one(s) whose sin was being atoned for. It is to be noted that the sins dealt with in Leviticus chapter 4 are sins wherein those involved have done “one of the things that Jehovah commands should not be done” and so have become guilty. (Lev. 4:2, 13, 22, 27) For Atonement Day sin offerings, see ATONEMENT DAY. Occasions and features of sin offerings include:

I. For sin of the high priest bringing guilt upon the people (Lev. 4:3): The high priest brought a bull and laid his hand on the bull’s head; the bull was slaughtered; its blood was taken into the Holy Place and sprinkled before the curtain; some of the blood being smeared on the horns of the altar of incense; the rest was poured out at the base of the altar of burnt offering; the fat (as in communion offerings) was burned on the altar of burnt offering (Lev. 4:4-10) and the carcass (including the skin) was burned in a clean place outside the city, where altar ashes were put. (Lev. 4:11, 12)

II. For sin of the entire assembly (some sin made by the leaders [older men] or by the assembly, of which the leaders were not aware) (Lev. 4:13): The congregation brought a bull; the older men laid their hands on the bull’s head; one slaughtered it; the remainder of the procedure was the same as for a sin of the high priest. (Lev. 4:14-21)

A sin of the high priest committed in his official position and capacity as representative of the entire nation before Jehovah brought guilt upon the entire assembly. This might be an error such as a mistake in judgment, or in application of the Law, or in dealing with a question of national importance. For this, and for the sin of the entire assembly, the most valuable of sacrifices, namely, a bull, was required.

With sin offerings for individuals the blood was taken no farther than the altar. However, the covenant relationship existed between Jehovah and the entire nation as a “holy people” to God (not merely with individuals). (Deut. 7:6-8) Therefore, in cases of sin of the high priest and of the entire assembly, the blood was also taken into the Holy Place, the first compartment of the sanctuary, and was sprinkled before the curtain, on the other side of which Jehovah ‘resided,’ as represented by the Ark of the covenant in the Most Holy. (Only in the sin offerings regularly made on Atonement Day was blood taken into the Most Holy, the second compartment. [Lev. chap. 16]) No priest could eat any portion of offerings from which blood was taken into the Holy Place, because the offering was for the sins of the entire nation, including the priests.—Lev. 6:30.

III. Sin of a chieftain: The procedure was similar, except a male goat was used, and blood was not taken into Holy Place; it was put on the horns of the altar of burnt offering; the rest was poured out at its base; the fat was made to smoke on the altar (Lev. 4:22-26); the priests evidently received a portion to eat, as in other sin offerings (Lev. 6:24-26, 29); vessels in which meat was boiled must then be scoured (or broken, if earthenware), that none of the “most holy thing” be desecrated by using the vessel for ordinary purposes, should any of the sacrifice cling to it. (Lev. 6:27, 28)

IV. Sin of an individual Israelite: A female kid of the goats or a female lamb was used; the procedure was the same as for the sin of a chieftain. (Lev. 4:27-35)

In the following, the sins differ from the foregoing in that the persons involved committed an error and did “not do all [God’s] commandments,” hence a sin of omission.—Num. 15:22.

V. For the entire assembly, a kid of the goats was used (Num. 15:23-26); for an individual, a female goat in its first year. (Num. 15:27-29)

In cases where priests were to eat part of the sin offering, it appears that, in partaking, they were considered as ‘answering for the error’ of those making the sin offering “so as to make atonement for them before Jehovah,” by virtue of their holy office.—Lev. 10:16-18; 9:3, 15.

Guilt offerings

Guilt offerings were also offerings because of sin, for guilt of any sort is sin. They were for special sins by which a person had contracted guilt, and differed slightly from other sin offerings in that they appear to have been to satisfy or restore a right; for either a right of Jehovah or a right of his holy nation had been violated. The guilt offering was to satisfy Jehovah on the right violated, and/or to restore or recover certain covenant rights for the repentant wrongdoer, and to get relief from the penalty for his sin.—Compare Isaiah 53:10.

In the cases covered in Leviticus 5:1-6, 17-19, the individuals had sinned unwittingly, thoughtlessly or carelessly, and, when the matter was brought to their attention, they desired to right the matter. On the other hand, the sins dealt with at Leviticus 6:1-7 were not unwitting or careless sins, but, nevertheless, were sins due to fleshly weaknesses and desires, not deliberate, high-handed and purposely in rebellion against God. The person had come to be stricken in conscience and voluntarily repented, confessing his sin and, first making restoration, sought mercy and forgiveness.—Matt. 5:23, 24.

These laws highlight the fact that, while the Law was strict for the deliberate, unrepentant sinner, there was room for consideration of motives, circumstances and attitudes, so as to extend mercy under the Law, even as is the case in the Christian congregation. (Compare Leviticus 6:1-7; Exodus 21:29-31; Numbers 35:22-25; 2 Corinthians 2:5-11; 7:8-12; 1 Timothy 1:2-16.) But note that none of these wrongs could be done with impunity, or without making compensation to the individual harmed, plus a guilt offering to Jehovah. The guilt offerings were, with a few variations, handled in the same way as the sin offerings, the priests getting a portion to eat.—Lev. 7:1, 5-7.