to public view the mire and dirt of their excesses, . . . So these men foam out their own acts of shame, and cast them forth for men to see, and so to blame the Church for the ill-deeds of these professors.” (F. C. Cook, Commentary on Jude) Another says: “What they impart is as unsubstantial and valueless as the foam of the oceanside, and is in fact a proclamation of their own shame.”—Schaff-Lange, Commentary on Jude; compare Peter’s description of such men at 2 Peter 2:10-22.

SEAH

(seʹah).

A dry measure. (Gen. 18:6; 1 Sam. 25:18; 1 Ki. 18:32; 2 Ki. 7:1, 16, 18) According to rabbinical sources, the seah measure is equal to one-third of an ephah. Since the ephah measure is reckoned at .62 bushel (22 liters) on the basis of archaeological evidence regarding the capacity of the corresponding liquid bath measure (compare Ezekiel 45:11), the seah measure would equal .21 bushel (7.33 liters).

SEAL

Ancient seals used for making impressions consisted of a piece of hard material (stone, ivory or wood) having engraved letters or designs in reverse. They were made in various shapes, including cones, squares, cylinders, scarabs and animal heads. (Regarding signet or seal rings, see RING.) Those in the form of a cylinder commonly measured between three-fourths and one and a half inches (1.9 to 3.8 centimeters) in length. Engraved on the curved surface, the cylinder, when rolled on moist clay, produced a continuous impression in relief. Often cylinder seals were pierced through from end to end and thus could be suspended from a cord.

Religious symbols, plants, animals and simple scenes are among the things depicted on Egyptian and Mesopotamian seals. The Babylonian “Temptation Seal” shows a tree with a man seated on one side and a woman on the other, and behind the woman is an erect serpent. Often seals gave the owner’s name and/or his position. For example, one seal found in Palestine reads, “[Belonging] to Shema, the minister of Jeroboam.”

Seal impressions could indicate ownership or authenticity and could prevent tampering with documents or other things, including bags, doors and even tombs, that were sealed. (Job 14:17; Dan. 6:17; Matt. 27:66) When the prophet Jeremiah purchased a field, one copy of the deed was left open, but a second copy was sealed, perhaps by folding it closed, tying it with a cord and then putting a lump of wax or another soft substance on the cord and impressing the soft material with a seal. If later any question would arise about the accuracy of the open copy, the deed that had been sealed before witnesses could be produced. (Jer. 32:10-14, 44) A person entrusted with the king’s seal could issue official decrees, the seal impression stamping the decrees as authentic. (1 Ki. 21:8; Esther 3:10, 12; 8:2, 8, 10) Affixing one’s seal to a document could signify an acceptance of the terms contained therein. (Neh. 9:38; 10:1) Numerous ancient jar handles with seal impressions on them have been found. The seal impressions may have shown to whom the jars and their contents belonged or perhaps gave an indication of the quantity or quality of the contents.

FIGURATIVE USE

The actual uses for seals provide the basis for a number of figurative expressions found in the Bible. It was foretold that the Messiah would “imprint a seal upon vision and prophet.” This is because, by fulfilling the prophecies, the Messiah would stamp them as authentic and inspired of God. (Dan. 9:24; compare John 3:33.) In the sense of a mark of possession or ownership, Abraham received circumcision as a “seal” of the righteousness that he had. (Rom. 4:11) Since the apostle Paul had aided many Corinthian Christians to become believers, they served as a seal confirming the genuineness of his apostleship. (1 Cor. 9:1, 2) First-century Christians are spoken of as being “sealed” by means of holy spirit, which is an advance token of their heavenly inheritance. (Eph. 1:13, 14; 4:30) The seal signifies their being God’s possession (2 Cor. 1:21, 22) and shows that they are truly in line for heavenly life. The book of Revelation shows the number finally sealed to be 144,000.—Rev. 7:2-4; 9:4.

The Bible speaks of something that is closed, hidden or secret as being sealed. Prophetic messages were “sealed” during the time they were not understood. (Dan. 12:4, 9; Rev. 5:1; 22:10; compare Isaiah 8:16; 29:11.) And Jehovah is said to ‘put a seal around stars,’ evidently meaning that he hides them from view by means of clouds.—Job 9:7.

SEALSKIN

[taʹhhash].

There is considerable uncertainty as to the particular kind of skin that was used in making the outer cover of the tabernacle and for wrapping up the furnishings and utensils of the sanctuary for transport. Taʹhhash or t^ehha·shimʹ (plural) usually appears alongside ʽohr or ʽoh·rohthʹ (“skin,” “skins”). (Ex. 25:5; 26:14; 35:7, 23; 36:19; 39:34; Num. 4:6-14, 25; Ezek. 16:10) The translators of the Septuagint Version seem to have understood the Hebrew word to denote, not an animal, but a color (“blue,” Bagster’s LXX). However, the almost unanimous opinion of Jewish commentators is that taʹhhash refers to an animal. This view was also endorsed by the Hebrew lexicographer Gesenius, who considered the Septuagint reading to be simply conjecture, a rendering having neither the support of etymology nor of related languages. He understood taʹhhash to mean either the seal or the badger, basing his conclusions on the context, the authority of the Talmudists, a comparison of the Hebrew word with similar words in other languages, and on the Hebrew etymology.

Bible translators have variously rendered ʽohr (ʽoh·rohthʹ) taʹhhash (t^ehha·shimʹ) as “badgers’ skin(s)” (AV), “goatskin(s)” (RS), “porpoise skin(s)” (AT), “sealskin(s)” (AS), “leather” (Mo), “fine leather” (JB), “violet skins” (Dy, from Latin, based on Vg) and “tahash leather.” (NW, footnotes of 1953 edition in most occurrences, but “sealskin(s)” in main text) The rendering “badgers’ skin(s)” is not generally favored by scholars, since it is thought unlikely that the Israelites would have been able to procure enough badger skins, either in Egypt or in the wilderness, for covering the tabernacle. There are also scholars who consider neither “badgers’ skin(s)” nor “sealskin(s)” nor “porpoise skin(s)” to be correct, in view of the fact that badgers, seals, porpoises or dolphins, dugongs, and similar creatures were evidently unclean for food. (Lev. 11:12, 27) They therefore find it hard to conceive that the skin of an “unclean” animal would have been used for something so sacred as the construction of the tabernacle and as a protective covering for the furnishings and utensils of the sanctuary. Those taking this view suggest that taʹhhash may designate the skin of a clean animal, possibly of a kind of antelope, sheep or goat.

USABLE, THOUGH SEAL CLASSED AS UNCLEAN

The fact that seals were evidently unclean for food would not necessarily rule out using their skins as a covering for the tabernacle. For instance, whereas the lion and the eagle were “unclean” (Lev. 11:13, 27), the heavenly cherubs seen by Ezekiel in vision were depicted with four faces, including that of a lion and of an eagle. (Ezek. 1:5, 10; 10:14) Also, the copper carriages that Solomon made for temple use were adorned with representations of lions, and this undoubtedly according to the plans given to David by divine inspiration. (1 Ki. 7:27-29; 1 Chron. 28:11-19) The Israelites used “unclean” animals, such as asses, for mounts, it even being foretold that the Messiah would ride into Jerusalem upon an ass. (Zech. 9:9; Matt. 21:4, 5) Although John the Baptist had a most sacred commission to “go in advance before Jehovah to make his ways ready,” he wore clothing made from the hair of an “unclean” animal. (Luke 1:76; Matt. 3:4; Lev. 11:4) All this tends to indicate that the distinction of clean and unclean was simply dietary, though at times also with reference to sacrifice, and did not require that the Israelites regard “unclean” animals with general abhorrence. (Lev. 11:46, 47) Also, these, like the “clean” animals, were created by God and therefore good, not loathsome in themselves.—Gen. 1:21, 25.

HOW OBTAINABLE BY ISRAELITES

If the taʹhhash of the Bible does designate a kind of seal, then a question may arise as to how it was possible for the Israelites to obtain sealskins. While seals are generally associated with Arctic and Antarctic regions, some seals favor warmer climates. Today monk seals still inhabit part of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as other warmer waters. Over the centuries man has greatly reduced the number of seals, and in Bible times these animals may have been abundant in the Mediterranean and in the Red Sea. As late as 1832 Calmet’s Dictionary of the Holy Bible (p. 139) observed: “On many of the small islands of the Red sea, around the peninsula of Sinai, are found seals.”

The ancient Egyptians engaged in commerce on the Red Sea and, of course, received goods from many of the Mediterranean regions. So the Egyptians would have had access to sealskins. Hence, when the Israelites left Egypt, they might have taken with them the sealskins they already had, along with others obtained when the Egyptians gave into their hands an abundance of valuable things.—Ex. 12:35, 36.

SEA MONSTER

This generally translates the Hebrew word tan·ninʹ (tan·nimʹ at Ezekiel 29:3, “sea monster”; 32:2, “marine monster,” NW). This term is rendered “big snake” (NW) when not mentioned in connection with the sea or water (Jer. 51:34), or when a reference to snakes is definitely indicated by the context. (Ex. 7:9, 12; compare Exodus 4:2, 3) Undoubtedly tan·ninʹ includes a variety of large marine animals (Gen. 1:21; Ps. 148:7), but this term is usually employed in a figurative sense. The destruction of Pharaoh and his hosts appears to be alluded to by the phrase: “You [Jehovah] broke the heads of the sea monsters in the waters.” (Ps. 74:13) At Isaiah 51:9, “sea monster” appears in parallel with Rahab (Egypt; compare Isaiah 30:7) and hence may denote Egypt, as is probably also the case at Isaiah 27:1 (compare Isaiah 27:12, 13), or the reference is to Pharaoh, as in Ezekiel 29:3 and 32:2. Faithful Job asked whether he himself was a “sea monster” that had to have a guard set over him.—Job 7:12; see LEVIATHAN.

SEASONS

A season is a period when a specific type of agricultural work is normal or a certain kind of weather prevails; a suitable or appointed time for something.

As the earth revolves around the sun, the tilt of the earth’s axis at an angle to the plane of the ecliptic produces a cycle of weather seasons. As markers of the passing of time, the heavenly bodies serve as indicators of seasons. (Gen. 1:14) Genesis 8:22 says that the earth’s seasons will “never cease.” For a correlation of the months of the Jewish and Gregorian calendars and the festival, weather and agricultural seasons, see pages 278 and 279.

Closely connected with the agricultural seasons were the annual “festival seasons” when the festivals established by the Mosaic law were celebrated. (1 Chron. 23:31; 2 Chron. 31:3) Hence, when Paul counseled some Jewish Christians who were “scrupulously observing days and months and seasons,” he meant the festival seasons that were a part of the Law, not simply weather or agricultural seasons.—Gal. 4:10.

“Season” can therefore refer to a fixed or an appointed time or a period possessed of certain characteristics. (Acts 3:19; Rom. 8:18; Gal. 6:9; see APPOINTED TIMES OF THE NATIONS.) In time what constituted healthful teaching and proper conduct were made very clear to Christians. Accordingly, it was the “season” to be awake. (Rom. 13:11-14) The “times or seasons” or periods when Jehovah’s will in certain matters would take place were of real interest to his worshipers (Acts 1:7), who understood them as they were progressively revealed.—1 Thess. 5:1.

In regard to the dwelling of nations on the earth, God “decreed the appointed seasons” (Acts 17:26; “fixed the epochs of their history,” NE) in that he determined when certain changes should occur, such as when the divinely appointed time came to uproot the Canaanite inhabitants of the Promised Land.—Gen. 15:13-21; Jer. 25:8-11; Dan. 2:21; 7:12.

SEBA

(Seʹba).

1. One of the five sons of Cush.—Gen. 10:7; 1 Chron. 1:9.

2. A people of E Africa. At Isaiah 43:3 Seba is linked with Egypt and more particularly with Ethiopia (Cush), as being given as a ransom in place of Jacob. In a similar listing Isaiah 45:14 has “Sabeans” in place of “Seba,” indicating that the people of Seba were called Sabeans. These verses suggest that Seba bordered on or was included in Ethiopia. This is supported by Josephus, who says that the name applied to the city of Meroe on the Nile and to the large section (Isle of Meroe) between the Nile, Blue Nile and Atabara Rivers. The reference to these Sabeans as “tall men” (Isa. 45:14) is borne out by Herodotus, who speaks of the Ethiopians as “the tallest and handsomest men in the whole world.”—See CUSH Nos. 1 and 2.

Meroe was long an important trading place. Among the distant places mentioned in Psalm 72 in describing the dominion and influence of Jehovah’s king, Seba and Sheba are named as places whose kings would present a gift.—Ps. 72:10; Joel 3:8.

SEBAM

(Seʹbam).

Apparently an alternate name for Sibmah.—Num. 32:3, 38; see SIBMAH.

SECACAH

(Se·caʹcah) [thicket, cover].

A City of Judah in the wilderness. (Josh. 15:20, 61) Secacah is often identified with Khirbet es-Samrah, on a hill about four miles (6 kilometers) W of the northern part of the Dead Sea. This is in the heart of el-Buqeʽah, a barren plateau, in the northern section of the Judean wilderness.

SECRETARY

Usually an appointed official skilled at writing and keeping records. The Hebrew word so·pherʹ can be rendered in a number of ways, such as “secretary,” “scribe” and “copyist.”

At least at times in Israel there was a trusted court official of high rank called the “secretary of the king,” or the “secretary.” (2 Chron. 24:11; 2 Ki. 19:2) He was not simply a scribe such as would be employed in merely making documents, or a copyist of the Law. (Judg. 5:14; Neh. 13:13; compare 2 Samuel 8:15-18; 20:23-26; see COPYIST; SCRIBE.) On occasion the secretary of the king handled financial matters (2 Ki. 12:10, 11) and spoke as a representative of the king, in a capacity similar to that of a ‘foreign secretary.’ (Isa. 36:2-4, 22; 37:2, 3) Under Solomon’s rule two of the “princes” are named as secretaries.—1 Ki. 4:2, 3; compare 2 Chronicles 16:11; 34:13.

In addition to the “secretary of the king,” the Bible mentions the secretary “of the house of Jehovah” (2 Ki. 22:3), “of the chief of the army” (2 Ki. 25:19; Jer. 52:25) and “of the Levites.” (1 Chron. 24:6) Baruch was a scribal secretary for Jeremiah.—Jer. 36:32.

SECRETARY’S INKHORN

See RECORDER’S INKHORN.

SECT

The Greek word (haiʹre·sis, from which comes the English “heresy”) thus translated means “a