neighbors. Additionally, some have linked various instruments of Scripture to instruments used in modern times in the Middle East, which are supposed to have an ancient background. This, too, is conjectural.

The musical instruments of the Bible may be classified as follows:

String: harp, lute, zither, and others.

Wind: bagpipe, flute, horn, pipe, trumpet, (possibly) nehiloth.

Percussion: cymbals, sistrums, tambourine.

(See individual articles on the above instruments for further information.)

There is no reason to believe that the musical instruments of Israel were crude in design, construction or sound production. The Bible notes that the harps and stringed instruments for temple use were of the choicest imported almug wood; the trumpets, in all probability, of silver. (1 Ki. 10:11, 12; Num. 10:2) Undoubtedly, in the manufacture of the temple instruments, the most skilled craftsmen were employed.

Both the Scriptures and non-Biblical manuscripts dating from before the Common Era testify to the quality of the instruments as well as the competence of the Israelite musicians. The Dead Sea Scrolls state that a number of trumpets were assigned various complicated signals to be executed “as with one mouth.” This would require not only skilled musicians but also instruments so constructed that the pitch might be regulated in order to bring them all into tune with one another. Freedom from dissonance is indicated by the inspired account of the music at the inauguration of Solomon’s temple: “The [one hundred and twenty] trumpeters and the singers were as one in causing one sound to be heard.”—2 Chron. 5:12, 13.

The Bible lists but four instruments as definitely being in the temple orchestra: trumpets, harps, stringed instruments (Hebrew, neʹvel) and cymbals. While this may not seem to be a complete orchestra by modern standards, it was never intended to be a symphony orchestra, but only to provide accompaniment for the singing at the temple. Such a combination of instruments would serve this purpose excellently.—2 Chron. 29:25, 26; Neh. 12:27, 41, 42.

As to the times when the sacred instruments performed, the Scriptures enumerate the following in connection with the trumpets: “In the day of your rejoicing and in your festal seasons and at the commencements of your months, you must blow on the trumpets over your burnt offerings and your communion sacrifices.” (Num. 10:10) After the temple music organization was established, it is likely that the rest of the instruments joined the trumpets on these and other special occasions. This conclusion, as well as the musical procedure followed, seems to be indicated by the order of events described as taking place when sacred services were revived by King Hezekiah after he had cleansed the temple: “At the time that the burnt offering started, the song of Jehovah started and also the trumpets, even under the direction of the instruments of David the king of Israel. And all the congregation were bowing down while the song was resounding and the trumpets were blaring—all this until the burnt offering was finished.” (2 Chron. 29:27, 28) The trumpets being “under the direction of the instruments of David” seems to denote that the trumpeters played in such a manner as to complement the other instruments rather than to overshadow them. The position of the entire body of musicians was “to the east of the altar.”—2 Chron. 5:12.

VOCAL MUSIC

The singers at the temple were Levite males. Nowhere do the Scriptures speak of female vocalists at the temple. One of the Targums, too, clearly indicates that they were not present in the chorus. The fact that women were prohibited from even entering certain areas of the temple would seem to preclude their occupying any official position there.—2 Chron. 5:12; Neh. 10:39; 12:27-29.

Considerable importance was attached to the singing at the temple. This is evident from the many Scriptural references to the singers as well as from the fact that they were “set free from duty” common to other Levites in order to devote themselves wholly to their service. (1 Chron. 9:33) Their continuance as a special group of Levites is emphasized by their being listed separately among those returning from Babylon. (Ezra 2:40, 41) Even the authority of the Persian King Artaxerxes (Longimanus) was brought to bear in their behalf, exempting them, along with other special groups, from ‘tax, tribute and toll.’ (Ezra 7:24) Later, the king commanded that there was to be “a fixed provision for the singers as each day required.” Although Artaxerxes is credited with this order, most likely it was issued by Ezra on the basis of the power granted to him by Artaxerxes. (Neh. 11:23; Ezra 7:18-26) Thus, it is understandable that, although the singers were all Levites, the Bible makes reference to them as a special body, speaking of “the singers and the Levites.”—Neh. 7:1; 13:10.

Apart from temple worship, other singers, men and women, are spoken of in Scripture. Examples of these are the male and female singers maintained by Solomon in his court; also, about two hundred singers of both sexes who, in addition to the Levitical musicians, returned from Babylon. (Eccl. 2:8; Ezra 2:65; Neh. 7:67) These non-Levitical singers, common in Israel, were employed not only to enhance various festive occasions but also to chant dirges in times of sorrow. (2 Sam. 19:35; 2 Chron. 35:25; Jer. 9:17, 20) The custom of hiring professional musicians at times of joy and sadness appears to have continued into the time Jesus was on earth.—Matt. 11:16, 17.

Although not as prominent as in the Hebrew Scriptures, music is not ignored or overlooked in the Christian Greek Scriptures. Instrumental music in connection with true worship is mentioned only in a figurative sense in the Greek Scriptures (Rev. 14:2); yet singing seems to have been quite common among God’s servants. Jesus and his apostles sang praises after the Lord’s Evening Meal. (Mark 14:26) Luke tells of Paul and Silas singing when in prison, and Paul’s encouragement to fellow believers was to sing songs of praise to Jehovah. (Acts 16:25; Eph. 5:18, 19; Col. 3:16) Paul’s statement at 1 Corinthians 14:15 concerning singing appears to indicate that it was a regular feature of Christian worship. In recording his inspired vision, John tells of various heavenly creatures singing to God and Christ.—Rev. 5:8-10; 14:3; 15:2-4.

NATURE OF BIBLICAL MUSIC

The Israelites’ higher plane of morality and their superior literature, as exemplified by the poetry and prose of the Hebrew Scriptures, suggest that the music of ancient Israel most likely transcended that of her contemporaries. Certainly the inspiration for the music of Israel was far loftier than that of neighboring nations. Of interest is an Assyrian bas-relief wherein King Sennacherib is represented as demanding that King Hezekiah pay him as tribute both male and female musicians.

It has long been held by some that Hebrew music was all melody, without harmony. However, the prominence alone of the harp and other stringed instruments in Israel weighs heavily against this assumption. It is almost inconceivable that a musician would play a multistringed instrument and fail to notice that a combination of certain tones was quite pleasing or that a specific series of notes as in an arpeggio produced a pleasant sound. An authority on the history of music, Kurt Sachs, states: “The deep-rooted prejudice that harmony and polyphony [two or more musical parts or voices combined] have been a prerogative of the medieval and modern West does not hold water.” He goes on to say that even among primitive cultures there are many examples of music running in fifths, fourths, thirds as well as in octaves, and that among these peoples, including certain pygmy tribes, there was a development of overlapping antiphony (alternate singing by two divisions of vocalists) into regular canon singing.

Based on worldwide research Sachs presents the conclusion that “the choruses and orchestras connected with the Temple in Jerusalem suggest a high standard of musical education, skill, and knowledge.” He continues: “It is important to realize that the ancient Western Orient had a music quite different from what historians of the nineteenth century conceded it. . . . Though we do not know how that ancient music sounded, we have sufficient evidence of its power, dignity, and mastership.”

The Scriptures intimate a similar conclusion. For instance, over thirty times the expression “To [For] the director” (NW; AT) appears in the superscriptions to the Psalms. (Psalm 11, and others) Other translations read “choirmaster” (Kx; JB; Mo; RS); “Chief Musician” (AS; AV; Le; Ro) and “Bandmaster” (Fn). The Hebrew term seems to refer to one who in some way gave direction to the execution of the song, either in arranging it, or in rehearsing and training the Levite singers or in its official performance. Perhaps the chief one of each of the twenty-four courses of sanctuary musicians is being addressed, or it may have been another one of the accomplished musicians, since the record says that they were “to act as directors.” (1 Chron. 15:21; 25:1, 7-31) In some twenty other Psalms the superscriptions are even more specific in their reference to the “directors”: “To the director on stringed instruments,” “To the director on the lower octave,” and so on. (Psalms 4, 12, and others) Additionally, there are Scriptural references to the “heads of the singers,” to the “experts” and to the ‘learners.’ All of this testifies to a high standard of music.—Neh. 12:46; 1 Chron. 25:7, 8.

Much of the group singing in Israel appears to have been antiphonal, either two half choruses alternating in singing parallel lines, or a soloist and an answering chorus alternating. In the Scriptures this apparently is referred to as “responding.” (Ex. 15:21; 1 Sam. 18:6, 7) This type of singing is indicated by the very way some of the psalms are written, such as Psalm 136. The description of the two large thanksgiving choirs in Nehemiah’s time and of their part in the inauguration of the wall of Jerusalem implies that they sang in this style.—Neh. 12:31, 38, 40-42; see SONG.

Chanting might be said to be halfway between singing and speaking. In pitch it is rather monotonous and repetitious, with the emphasis being on rhythm. While chanting continues to be quite popular in some of the world’s leading religions, its use in the Bible appears to be limited to dirges, as in the case of David chanting a dirge over the deaths of his friend Jonathan and King Saul. (2 Sam. 1:17; 2 Chron. 35:25; Ezek. 27:32; 32:16) Only in a dirge or lamentation would the chanting style be preferable to either the melody of music or the modulation and oral emphasis of pure speech.—See DIRGE.

MUSTACHE

See BEARD.

MUSTARD

A rapid-growing herb, to the seed or grain of which Jesus referred in illustrating the growth of the kingdom of the heavens from a small beginning (Matt. 13:31, 32; Mark 4:30-32; Luke 13:18, 19; compare Daniel 2:34, 35, 44, 45; 4:20-22), and in pointing out that even a little faith can accomplish much. (Matt. 17:20; Luke 17:6) Several kinds of mustard plants are found growing wild in Palestine, black mustard being the variety commonly cultivated. In rich soil the seed, after a few months, may become treelike, a plant measuring from ten to as much as fifteen feet (3 to 4.6 meters) in height, with a central stalk having the thickness of a man’s arm. The flowers of mustard plants are yellow and the leaves rather irregular-edged and dark green in color. The pods that develop contain a row of seeds, those of the black mustard being dark brown. In the fall the stems and branches of the plants harden and become rigid, strong enough to support birds such as linnets and finches that feed on the seeds.

While some may argue that a mustard grain is not the “tiniest” of all seeds, orchid seeds being smaller, and that it does not actually become a “tree,” it must be borne in mind that Jesus was speaking in terms familiar to his audience. As far as Jesus’ listeners were concerned, the mustard grain was indeed among the tiniest seeds planted, and it is noteworthy that the Arabs designate as “trees” plants smaller than the mustard.—Matt. 13:31, 32.

MUTH-LABBEN

(Muth-labʹben) [Heb., ʽal·muthʹ lab·benʹ, possibly meaning “concerning the death of the son”]. An expression included in the superscription of one of David’s psalms. (Psalm 9) Some commentators suggest that it indicated to the musical director the name or perhaps the opening words of a familiar song that furnished the melody to be used in singing this psalm. One possibility of the word’s meaning is advanced by the Targum, wherein the superscription of Psalm 9 reads: “On the death of the man who came forth from between the camps,” alluding to a champion. The apparent reference here is to Goliath, the Philistine champion whom David defeated in battle between the Israelite and Philistine encampments.—1 Sam. 17:45-51.

MUZZLE

A device designed to cover an animal’s mouth and prevent it from biting or eating.

Cattle were often used in ancient Palestine when a large quantity of grain was to be threshed. In preparation, the sheaves were untied and distributed over the hard-packed surface of the threshing floor until a thick layer was formed. Then one or more animals trod the grain with their hooves or it was threshed by means of a threshing sledge or other implement they drew over it. The Mosaic law commanded: “You must not muzzle a bull while it is threshing.” (Deut. 25:4) Thus it was not tortured with a desire to eat some of the grain that it was expending its strength to thresh.—Compare Proverbs 12:10.

The principle involved at Deuteronomy 25:4 can also be applied to human laborers. Paul told Timothy: “Let the older men who preside in a fine way be reckoned worthy of double honor, especially those who work hard in speaking and teaching.” Then, confirming his counsel, the apostle quoted the law about not muzzling a bull when it is threshing grain. (1 Tim. 5:17, 18) Also, as part of Paul’s reasoning to show the Corinthians that “the Lord ordained for those proclaiming the good news to live by means of the good news,” he quoted Deuteronomy 25:4 and then wrote: “Is it bulls God is caring for? Or is it altogether for our sakes he says it? Really for our sakes it was written, because the man who plows ought to plow in hope and the man who threshes ought to do so in hope of being a partaker.”—1 Cor. 9:8-14.

MY

or, as commonly anglicized, mu [Μ ,μ].

The twelfth letter of the Greek alphabet, originating from the Hebrew mem. It corresponds generally with the English “m.”

My when accented has the value of forty (μ΄), and, with the subscript (,μ), 40,000.

MYRA

(Myʹra).

A major city in the province of Lycia. Situated near the coast of SW Asia Minor, Myra occupied a hill over two miles (3 kilometers) inland on the river Andracus. The site is now known as