holding certain constellations together according to physical laws are indicated by God’s questions to Job: “Can you tie fast the bonds of the Kimah constellation, or can you loosen the very cords of the Kesil constellation? Can you bring forth the Mazzaroth constellation in its appointed time? . . . Have you come to know the statutes of the heavens, or could you put its authority in the earth?” (Job 38:31-33; see ASH CONSTELLATION; KESIL CONSTELLATION; KIMAH CONSTELLATION; MAZZAROTH CONSTELLATION.) Thus, The New Bible Dictionary edited by Douglas (p. 1215) states: “We assert, then, that the Bible consistently assumes a universe which is fully rational, and vast in size, in contrast to the typical contemporary world-view, in which the universe was not rational, and no larger than could actually be proved by the unaided senses.”

The apostle Paul’s expression as to the difference between individual stars can be appreciated even more in the light of modern astronomy, which shows the contrast existing as to color, size, amount of light produced, temperature, and even the relative density of the stars.—1 Cor. 15:40, 41.

STAR WORSHIP

While star worship was rampant among the ancient nations of the Middle East, the Scriptural view held by God’s faithful servants was that such astral bodies were simply material bodies subject to divine laws and control, not dominating man but serving as luminaries and time indicators. (Gen. 1:14-18; Ps. 136:3, 7-9; 148:3) In warning Israel against making any representation of the true God Jehovah, Moses commanded them not to be seduced into worship of sun, moon and stars, “which Jehovah your God has apportioned to all the peoples under the whole heavens.” (Deut. 4:15-20; compare 2 Kings 17:16; 21:5; 23:5; Zephaniah 1:4, 5.) Pagan nations identified their particular gods with certain stars and thus took a nationalistic view of those stellar bodies. Sakkuth and Kaiwan, mentioned at Amos 5:26 as gods worshiped by apostate Israel, are considered to be Babylonian names for the planet Saturn, called Rephan in Stephen’s quotation of this text. (Acts 7:42, 43) Star worship was especially prominent in Babylon, but was proved worthless at the time of her destruction.—Isa. 47:12-15.

THE “STAR” SEEN BY ASTROLOGERS AFTER JESUS’ BIRTH

The “astrologers from eastern parts,” hence from the neighborhood of Babylon, whose visit to King Herod after the birth of Jesus resulted in the slaughter of all the male infants in Bethlehem, were obviously not servants or worshipers of the true God. (Matt. 2:1-18; see ASTROLOGERS.) As to the “star” (Gr., a·sterʹ) seen by them, many suggestions have been given as to its having been a comet, meteor, a supernova, or, more popularly, a conjunction of planets. None of such bodies could logically have ‘come to a stop above where the young child was,’ thereby identifying the one house in the village of Bethlehem where the child was found. It is also notable that only these pagan astrologers “saw” the star. Their condemned practice of astrology and the adverse results of their visit, placing in danger the life of the future Messiah, certainly allow for, and even make advisable, the consideration of their having been directed by a source adverse to God’s purposes as relating to the promised Messiah. It is certainly reasonable to ask if the one who “keeps transforming himself into an angel of light,” whose operation is “with every powerful work and lying signs and portents,” who was able to make a serpent appear to speak, and who was referred to by Jesus as a “manslayer when he began,” could not also cause astrologers to ‘see’ a starlike object that guided them first, not to Bethlehem, but to Jerusalem, where resided a mortal enemy of the promised Messiah.—2 Cor. 11:3, 14; 2 Thess. 2:9; Gen. 3:1-4; John 8:44.

FIGURATIVE USE

Stars are used in the Bible in a figurative sense and in metaphors or similes to represent persons, as in Joseph’s dream in which his parents were represented by the sun and moon, and his eleven brothers by eleven stars. (Gen. 37:9, 10) Job 38:7 parallels “the morning stars” that joyfully cried out at earth’s founding with the angelic “sons of God.” The resurrected and exalted Jesus spoke of himself as “the bright morning star” and promised to give “the morning star” to his conquering followers, evidently indicating a sharing with him in his heavenly position and glory. (Rev. 22:16; 2:26, 28; compare 2 Timothy 2:12; Revelation 20:6.) The seven “angels” of the congregations, to whom written messages are delivered, are symbolized by seven stars in the right hand of Christ. (Rev. 1:16, 20; 2:1; 3:1) The “angel of the abyss” called Abaddon is also represented by a star.—Rev. 9:1, 11; see ABADDON.

In the proverbial saying of Isaiah chapter 14, the boastful and ambitious king of Babylon, who is himself called the “shining one” (Heb., heh·lelʹ; “Lucifer,” AV), is presented as seeking to lift up his throne “above the stars of God.” (Isa. 14:4, 12, 13) The metaphor of a “star” is used in referring prophetically to the Davidic kings of Judah (Num. 24:17) and Bible history shows that the Babylonian dynasty for a time did rise above these Judean kings by conquest of Jerusalem. A similar prophecy in Daniel chapter 8 describes the small “horn” of some future power as trampling down certain stars of the “army of the heavens,” and moving against the Prince of the army and his sanctuary (Dan. 8:9-13); while at Daniel chapter 12, by simile, those persons “having insight” and bringing others to righteousness are pictured as shining “like the stars” in the “time of the end.” (Dan. 12:3, 9, 10) By contrast, immoral deviators from truth are compared to “stars with no set course.”—Jude 13.

The darkening of the stars, along with the sun and moon, is a frequent figure used in prophetic warnings of disaster brought as a result of God’s judgment. (Isa. 13:10; Ezek. 32:7; Rev. 6:12, 13; 8:12; compare Job 9:6, 7.) The dimming of such luminaries is also used in the description of the fading years of the aged person at Ecclesiastes 12:1, 2. Elsewhere stars are spoken of as falling or being cast down to earth. (Matt. 24:29; Rev. 8:10; 9:1; 12:4) “Signs” in sun, moon and stars are foretold as evidence of the time of the end.—Luke 21:25.

“DAYSTAR”

The expression “daystar” (Gr., pho·sphoʹros) occurs once, at 2 Peter 1:19, and is similar in meaning to “morning star.” Such stars at certain seasons of the year are the last stars to rise on the eastern horizon before the sun appears and thus are heralds of the dawn of a new day. Peter’s previous reference to the vision of Jesus’ transfiguration in magnificent glory suggests a relation to his entering into kingly power as the “root and the offspring of David, and the bright morning star [a·sterʹ].”—Rev. 22:16; 2:26-28; see EXPANSE; HEAVEN.

‘STARS FOUGHT AGAINST SISERA’

The account at Judges 5:20 has occasioned discussion with regard to the phrase, “From heaven did the stars fight, from their orbits they fought against Sisera.” Some view it as merely a poetical reference to divine assistance. (Compare Judges 4:15; Psalm 18:9.) Other suggestions include the falling of showers of meteorites, or the dependence of Sisera on astrological predictions, which proved false. Clarke’s Commentary (Vol. II, p. 121) says: “Perhaps it means no more than this: the time which was measured and ruled by the heavenly bodies seemed only to exist for the destruction of the Canaanites.” Since the Bible record does not detail the manner in which the stars “fought,” it appears sufficient to regard the statement as showing some divine action of a miraculous nature taken on behalf of Israel’s army.—Gen. 18:14.

STATER

A silver coin with which the temple tax was paid for Jesus and his apostle Peter. Equivalent to four drachmas, it amounted to about four days’ wages at that time. (Matt. 17:24, 27) Many scholars view it as the tetradrachma minted at Antioch (Syria) or Tyre. The Tyrian tetradrachma, approximately the size of the United States half-dollar, bore the head of the god Melkarth on the obverse side, an eagle perched on a ship’s rudder on the reverse side, and an inscription reading “Tyre the Holy and Invincible.” A likeness of Emperor Augustus appeared on the tetradrachma of Antioch.

STATUTE

A formally established and recorded rule or law, divine or human. (Gen. 26:5; Ps. 89:30-32; Dan. 6:15) The Bible reveals Jehovah God to be the supreme Statute-giver.—Isa. 33:22; see LAW; LAWGIVER.

STATUTE-GIVER

See LAWGIVER.

STEALING

See THIEF.

STEEL

See IRON.

STEPHANAS

(Stephʹa·nas) [crowned].

One of the mature members of the congregation at Corinth, the capital of the Roman province of Achaia in southern Greece. Paul personally baptized Stephanas’ household as the “first fruits” of his ministry in that province. (1 Cor. 1:16; 16:15) Some five years later, about 55 C.E., Stephanas, together with two other brothers from Corinth, visited Paul in Ephesus, and it may have been through them that Paul learned of the distressing conditions about which he wrote in his first canonical letter to the Corinthians. (1 Cor. 1:11; 5:1; 11:18) Also, it may have been by their hands that this letter was delivered to Corinth.—1 Cor. 16:17.

STEPHEN

(Steʹphen) [crown, wreath].

The first Christian martyr. Though his name is Greek, he was one of the faithful Jewish remnant that accepted and followed the Messiah.—Acts 7:2.

HIS APPOINTMENT TO A SPECIAL MINISTRY

Stephen’s name first appears in the Bible record in connection with the appointment of men to special service responsibilities in the Christian congregation at Jerusalem. The account reads: “Now in these days, when the disciples were increasing, a murmuring arose on the part of the Greek-speaking Jews against the Hebrew-speaking Jews, because their widows were being overlooked in the daily distribution.” The apostles saw the need for special attention to this matter, and instructed the congregation: “So, brothers, search out for yourselves seven certified men from among you, full of spirit and wisdom, that we may appoint them over this necessary business.” These qualified men were then selected, and were appointed by the apostles.—Acts 6:1-4.

Stephen therefore received an appointment to a ministry in a special way. He may have already been an “older man” or “overseer,” along with the six others appointed over “this necessary business,” the distribution of food supplies. These men were men “full of spirit and wisdom,” which this particular emergency required, for it was, not only the mechanical distribution of food supplies (possibly in the form of grains and other staples), but also a matter of administration. The duties may have called for these men to handle buying, keeping of records, and so forth. So, although such work, if on a lesser scale or under other circumstances, might have been such as would be handled by a di·aʹko·nos, a “ministerial servant,” not an “overseer” or “older man,” the situation here was a sensitive one, difficulty and differences already existing in the congregation. Therefore it required men of notable judgment, discretion, understanding and experience. Stephen’s defense before the Sanhedrin indicates his qualifications.

While taking care of these appointed ministerial duties, Stephen vigorously continued his Christian preaching. The chronicler Luke reports that “Stephen, full of graciousness and power,” and “performing great portents and signs among the people,” was bitterly opposed by Jews of the so-called Synagogue of the Freedmen and others from Asia and Africa. But Stephen spoke with such wisdom and spirit that they could not hold their own against him. As had been done in Jesus’ case, these enemies secretly secured false witnesses to accuse Stephen of blasphemy before the Sanhedrin.

HIS DEFENSE BEFORE THE SANHEDRIN

Stephen boldly recounted God’s dealings with the Jews from the time of their forefather Abraham, and concluded with powerful accusations against his own audience of religious leaders. As they were cut to the heart by the truth of the accusations and began to gnash their teeth at him, Stephen was favored by God with a vision of God’s glory and of Jesus standing at God’s right hand. At his description of the vision, the assembly shouted and rushed upon him with one accord and threw him outside the city. Then, laying their garments at the feet of Saul, they stoned Stephen to death. Just before ‘falling asleep in death’ Stephen prayed: “Jehovah, do not charge this sin against them.” Certain reverent men came and gave him a burial and lamented his death. Great persecution then broke out against the Christians, scattering them (though the apostles remained in Jerusalem), and resulting in the spreading of the good news.—Acts 6:8–8:2; 11:19; 22:20; see FREEDMAN, FREEMAN.

Stephen’s account delivered before the Sanhedrin includes a number of facts concerning Jewish history that are not found in the Hebrew Scriptures: Moses’ Egyptian education, his age of forty when he fled Egypt, the forty-year duration of his stay in Midian before returning to Egypt, and the role of angels in giving the Mosaic law.—Acts 7:22, 23, 30, 32, 38.

Stephen was the first to bear witness that he had seen, in a special vision, Jesus returned to heaven and at the right hand of God, as prophesied at Psalm 110:1.—Acts 7:55, 56.

STEWARD

[Heb., so·khenʹ; Gr., oi·ko·noʹmos].

One placed in charge of the household or of certain property belonging to another. A steward might be a freeman or a trusted slave. The ‘unrighteous steward’ to whom Jesus referred in one of his illustrations seems to be pictured as a freeman. (Luke 16:1, 2, 4) Kings, and many other persons of wealth or distinction, had a steward, and men might vary as to the degree of authority they gave to their stewards. The Greek word e·piʹtro·pos, “man in charge,” is closely related in meaning, since a steward often had oversight of the house as well as the other servants and the property, and at times over business affairs.—Gal. 4:1-3; Luke 16:1-3.

Abraham had a faithful servant, Eliezer of Damascus as man in charge of his extensive belongings, consisting of great wealth of livestock and, at one time, many slaves, although Abraham held no land possessions other than a burial plot. (Gen. 13:2; 14:14; 15:2; 23:17-20; Acts 7:4, 5) Joseph, as a slave in Egypt, came to be in charge of Potiphar’s house. (Gen. 39:1-4, 8, 9) King Elah of Israel had a man over his household in Tirzah. This was likely a custom also of the other ancient kings. (1 Ki. 16:9) Shebna was steward over the king’s house in the days of King Hezekiah of Judah, but he was unfaithful and was replaced by Eliakim the son of Hilkiah.—Isa. 22:15, 20, 21.