of God, as was Moses. (Josh. 1:1, 2; 24:29; 2 Ki. 21:10) Though not a worshiper of Jehovah, one who performed a service that was in harmony with the divine will could be spoken of as God’s servant, an example being King Nebuchadnezzar.—Jer. 27:6.

The Greek term douʹlos corresponds to the Hebrew word ʽeʹvedh. It is used with reference to persons owned by fellowmen (Matt. 8:9; 10:24, 25; 13:27), devoted servants of God and of his Son Christ Jesus, both humans (Acts 2:18; 4:29; Rom. 1:1; Gal. 1:10) and angels (Rev. 19:10, where the word synʹdou·los [fellow slave] appears) and, in a figurative sense, to persons in slavery to sin (John 8:34; Rom. 6:16-20) or corruption.—2 Pet. 2:19.

The Hebrew word naʹʽar, like the Greek term pais, basically means a boy or a youth and can also designate a servant or an attendant. (1 Sam. 1:24; 4:21; 30:17; 2 Ki. 5:20; Matt. 2:16; 8:6; 17:18; 21:15; Acts 20:12) The Greek term oi·keʹtes denotes a house servant or slave (Luke 16:13), and a female slave or servant is designated by the Greek word pai·diʹske. (Luke 12:45) The participial form of the Hebrew root sha·rathʹ may be rendered by such terms as “minister” (Ex. 33:11), or “waiter.” (2 Sam. 13:18) The Greek word hy·pe·reʹtes, literally meaning an under-rower or subordinate, may be translated “attendant,” “court attendant” or “house attendant” (Matt. 26:58; Mark 14:54, 65; John 18:36) The Greek term the·raʹpon occurs solely at Hebrews 3:5 and means subordinate, attendant or minister.

BEFORE THE COMMON ERA

War, poverty and crime were the basic factors that reduced persons to a state of servitude. Captives of war were often constituted slaves by their captors or sold into slavery by them. (Compare 2 Kings 5:2; Joel 3:6.) In Israelite society a person who became poor could sell himself or his children into slavery to care for his indebtedness. (Ex. 21:7; Lev. 25:39, 47; 2 Ki. 4:1) One guilty of thievery but unable to make compensation was sold for the things he stole, evidently regaining his freedom at the time all claims against him were cared for.—Ex. 22:3.

At times slaves held a position of great trust and honor in a household. The patriarch Abraham’s aged servant (likely Eliezer) managed all his master’s possessions. (Gen. 24:2; 15:2, 3) A descendant of Abraham, Joseph, as a slave in Egypt, came to be in charge of everything belonging to Potiphar, a court official of Pharaoh. (Gen. 39:1, 5, 6) In Israel, there was a possibility of a slave’s becoming wealthy and redeeming himself.—Lev. 25:49.

Regarding conscription of workers, see COMPULSORY SERVICE; FORCED LABOR.

Laws governing slave-master relationships

Among the Israelites the status of the Hebrew slave differed from that of a slave who was a foreigner, alien resident or settler. Whereas the non-Hebrew remained the property of the owner and could be passed on from father to son (Lev. 25:44-46), the Hebrew slave was to be released in the seventh year of his servitude or in the Jubilee year, depending upon which came first. During the time of his servitude the Hebrew slave was to be treated as a hired laborer. (Ex. 21:2; Lev. 25:10; Deut. 15:12) A Hebrew who sold himself into slavery to an alien resident, to a member of an alien resident’s family or to a settler could be repurchased at any time, either by himself or by one having the right of repurchase. The redemption price was based on the number of years remaining until the Jubilee year or until the seventh year of servitude. (Lev. 25:47-52; Deut. 15:12) When granting a Hebrew slave his freedom the master was to give him a gift to assist him in getting a good start as a freedman. (Deut. 15:13-15) If a slave had come in with a wife, the wife went out with him. However, if the master had given him a wife (evidently a foreign woman who would not be entitled to freedom in the seventh year of servitude), she and any children by her remained the property of the master. In such a case the Hebrew slave could choose to remain with his master. His ear was then pierced with an awl to indicate that he would continue in servitude to time indefinite.—Ex. 21:2-6; Deut. 15:16, 17.

Female Hebrew slaves

Certain special regulations applied to a female Hebrew slave. She could be taken as a concubine by the master or designated as a wife for his son. When designated as a wife for the master’s son, the Hebrewess was to be treated with the due right of daughters. Even if the son took another wife, there was to be no diminishing of her sustenance, clothing and marriage due. A failure on the son’s part in this respect entitled the woman to her freedom without the payment of a redemption price. If the master sought to have a Hebrewess redeemed, he was not permitted to accomplish this by selling her to foreigners.—Ex. 21:7-11.

Protections and privileges

The Law protected slaves from brutalities. A slave was to be set at liberty if mistreatment by the master resulted in the loss of a tooth or an eye. As the usual value for a slave was thirty shekels (compare Exodus 21:32), his liberation would have meant considerable loss to the master, and therefore, would have served as a strong deterrent against abuse. Although a master could beat his slave, the slave, depending upon the decision of the judges, was to be avenged if he died under his master’s beating. However, if the slave lingered on for a day or two before dying, he was not to be avenged, this indicating that the master had intended, not to kill, but to discipline the slave. (Ex. 21:20, 21, 26, 27; Lev. 24:17) Also, it would appear that the beating could not be administered with a lethal instrument, as that would have signified intent to kill. (Compare Numbers 35:16-18.) Therefore, if a slave lingered on for a day or two, there would be reasonable question as to whether the death resulted from the chastisement. A beating with a rod, for example, would not normally be fatal, as shown by the statement at Proverbs 23:13: “Do not hold back discipline from the mere boy. In case you beat him with the rod, he will not die.”

Certain privileges were granted to slaves by the terms of the Law. As all male slaves were circumcised (Ex. 12:44; compare Genesis 17:12), they could eat the passover, and slaves of the priest could eat holy things. (Ex. 12:43, 44; Lev. 22:10, 11) Slaves were exempted from working on the sabbath. (Ex. 20:10; Deut. 5:14) During the sabbath year they were entitled to eat of the growth from spilled kernels and from the unpruned vine. (Lev. 25:5, 6) They were to share in the rejoicing associated with the sacrificing at the sanctuary and the celebration of the festivals.—Deut. 12:12; 16:11, 14.

FIRST-CENTURY CHRISTIAN POSITION

In the Roman Empire slaves were very numerous, with individuals owning hundreds and even thousands of slaves. The institution of slavery had the protection of the imperial government. First-century Christians did not take a stand against governmental authority in this matter and advocate a slaves’ revolt. They respected the legal right of others, including fellow Christians, to own slaves. That is why the apostle Paul sent back the runaway slave Onesimus. Because he had become a Christian, Onesimus willingly returned to his master, subjecting himself as a slave to a fellow Christian. (Philem. 10-17) The apostle Paul also admonished Christian slaves not to take advantage of their relationship to believing masters. He said: “Let those having believing owners not look down on them, because they are brothers. On the contrary, let them the more readily be slaves, because those receiving the benefit of their good service are believers and beloved.” (1 Tim. 6:2) For a slave to have a Christian master was a blessing, as his owner was under obligation to deal righteously and fairly with him.—Eph. 6:9; Col. 4:1.

The acceptance of Christianity by those in servitude placed upon them the responsibility of being better slaves, “not talking back, not committing theft, but exhibiting good fidelity.” (Titus 2:9, 10) Even if their masters were to treat them unjustly, this did not give them license to render inferior service. By suffering for righteousness’ sake, they imitated the example of Jesus Christ. (1 Pet. 2:18-25) “You slaves,” wrote the apostle Paul, “be obedient in everything to those who are your masters in a fleshly sense, not with acts of eye service, as men pleasers, but with sincerity of heart, with fear of Jehovah. Whatever you are doing, work at it whole-souled as to Jehovah, and not to men.” (Col. 3:22, 23; Eph. 6:5-8) Such fine conduct toward their masters prevented bringing reproach upon the name of God, as no one could blame Christianity for producing lazy, good-for-nothing slaves.—1 Tim. 6:1.

Of course, a slave’s “obedience in everything” could not include disobeying God’s law, as that would have meant fearing men rather than God. Wrongdoing by slaves, even when committed at the direction of a superior, would not have ‘adorned the teaching of their Savior, God,’ but would have misrepresented and disgraced this teaching. (Titus 2:10) Thus, their Christian conscience would govern.

In the Christian congregation all persons, regardless of their social status, enjoyed the same standing. All were anointed by the same spirit and thus shared in the same hope as members of one body. (1 Cor. 12:12, 13; Gal. 3:28; Col. 3:11) While more limited in what he could do in spreading the good news, the Christian slave was not to worry about this. If granted the opportunity to gain freedom, however, he would take advantage of it and thereby enlarge his sphere of Christian activity.—1 Cor. 7:21-23.

ENSLAVEMENT TO SIN

At the time the first man Adam disobeyed God’s law he surrendered perfect control of himself and yielded to the selfish desire to continue sharing association with his sinful wife and pleasing her. Adam’s surrendering himself to his sinful desire made this desire and its end product, sin, his master. (Compare Romans 6:16; James 1:14, 15.) He thus sold himself under sin. As all his offspring were yet in his loins, Adam also sold them under sin. That is why the apostle Paul wrote: “I am fleshly, sold under sin.” (Rom. 7:14) For this reason there was no way for any of Adam’s descendants to make themselves righteous, not even by trying to keep the Mosaic law. As the apostle Paul put it: “The commandment which was to life, this I found to be to death.” (Rom. 7:10) The inability of humans to keep the Law perfectly showed that they were slaves to sin and deserving of death, not life.

Only by availing themselves of the deliverance made possible through Jesus Christ could individuals be emancipated or gain freedom from this enslavement. (Compare John 8:31-34; Romans 7:21-25; Galatians 4:1-7; Hebrews 2:14-16.) Having been bought with the precious blood of Jesus, Christians are slaves or servants of Jehovah God and of his Son, obligated to keep their commands.—1 Cor. 7:22, 23; 1 Pet. 1:18, 19; Rev. 19:1, 2, 5; see DEATH; FREEDMAN, FREEMAN; FREEDOM; RANSOM; SIN, I.

SLEDGE

See FARMING IMPLEMENTS.

SLEEP

A period of rest marked by the cessation of conscious activity is vital for the maintenance of human life and health. Being fully aware of the importance of rest, Jesus Christ was concerned about his disciples’ having time to rest up a bit. (Mark 6:31) Jesus’ example shows that, even in human perfection, rest and sleep are necessary.—Compare Mark 4:38; see PERFECTION.

Hard work (Eccl. 5:12), a clear conscience (compare Psalm 32:3-5) and freedom from undue anxiety as well as trust in Jehovah (Ps. 3:5; 4:8; Prov. 3:24-26) contribute much toward making an individual’s sleep pleasurable and refreshing. Content with life’s necessities (compare 1 Timothy 6:8), the servant of God does not have to spend long hours in arduous toil to the point of sacrificing necessary sleep and still deriving no real benefit from his work.—Compare Psalm 127:1, 2.

Of course, there are times when God’s servants experience sleepless nights. If not due to sickness or other adverse or trialsome circumstances, their sleeplessness may stem from concern for fellow believers and the advancement of true worship. (2 Cor. 6:3-5; 11:23, 27; compare Psalm 132:3-5, where the reference is, not to actual sleep, but to rest, cessation from activity.) However, they do not need to worry needlessly about material possessions and lose sleep as a result. (Eccl. 5:12; compare Matthew 6:25-34.) On the other hand, wrongdoing serves to make wicked persons content. “They do not sleep unless they do badness, and their sleep has been snatched away unless they cause someone to stumble.”—Prov. 4:16.

While sleep is important, a person should not become a lover of sleep. (Prov. 20:13) “Laziness causes a deep sleep to fall,” making an individual inactive when he should be accomplishing something. (Prov. 19:15) For one to prefer to sleep or to be inactive when he should be working is to choose a course that eventually leads to poverty.—Prov. 6:9-11; 10:5; 24:33, 34.

Unlike men, Jehovah God does not become drowsy and require sleep. His servants, therefore, can rest assured that he can at all times supply needed help. (Ps. 121:3, 4) Only when, for his own good reasons, he delays or refrains from taking action, as in the case of those professing to be his people but proving to be unfaithful, is Jehovah likened to one who is asleep.—Ps. 44:23; 78:65.

SPIRITUAL WAKEFULNESS

When encouraging Christians at Rome not to be asleep or inactive and insensible to their responsibilities, the apostle Paul wrote: “It is already the hour for you to awake from sleep, for now our salvation is nearer than at the time when we became believers. The night is well along; the day has drawn near. Let us therefore put off the works belonging to darkness and let us put on the weapons of the light. As in the daytime let us walk decently, not in revelries and drunken bouts, not in illicit intercourse and loose conduct, not in strife and jealousy.” (Rom. 13:11-13; compare Ephesians 5:6-14; 1 Thessalonians 5:6-8; Revelation 16:15.) Those who engage in wrong practices or advance false teachings are asleep as to righteousness and need to wake up if they are to gain God’s approval.

DEATH IS LIKE SLEEP

There is evidence that people sleep in cycles. Each cycle is made up of a deep sleep followed by a lighter sleep. During periods of deep sleep it is very difficult to awaken a person. He is completely unaware of his surroundings and the things that may be occurring about him. There is no conscious activity. Similarly, the dead are “conscious of nothing at all.” (Eccl. 9:5, 10; Ps. 146:4) Therefore death, whether that of a man or of an animal, is like sleep. (Ps. 13:3; John 11:11-14; Acts 7:60; 1 Cor. 7:39; 15:51; 1 Thess. 4:13) The psalmist wrote: “From your rebuke, O God of Jacob, both the charioteer and the horse have fallen fast asleep.” (Ps. 76:6; compare Isaiah 43:17.) Were it not for God’s purpose to awaken persons from the sleep of death, they would never wake up.—Compare Job 14:10-15; Jeremiah 51:39, 57; see RESURRECTION.

However, “death” and “sleep” may also be contrasted. Concerning, a dead girl, Christ Jesus said: “The little girl did not die, but she is sleeping.” (Matt. 9:24; Mark 5:39; Luke 8:52) As he was going to resurrect her from death, Jesus may have meant that