rushes.” (Job 41:20) Many Bible scholars believe that God here had reference to the crocodile, which, when coming up out of the water, breathes out a thick, steamy vapor with a thundering sound.

SACRIFICIAL SMOKE

Another Hebrew word, qi·tohrʹ, has reference to smoke, especially sacrificial smoke, of incense or other sacrifice on the altar. Such sacrificial smoke was viewed as a pleasing odor ascending to the one to whom it was offered.—1 Chron. 6:49; Jer. 44:15; compare Genesis 8:20, 21; Leviticus 26:31; Ephesians 5:2.

SMYRNA

(Smyrʹna) [myrrh].

An ancient city on the W coast of Asia Minor; now called Izmir. Early settled by the Greeks, it was destroyed about 580 B.C.E. by Lydian King Alyattes. More than two centuries later, Alexander the Great planned to rebuild it as a Greek city, this being done by his successors on another site. Smyrna thereafter became an important commercial city. Later becoming part of the Roman province of Asia, Smyrna, with its fine public buildings, was noted for its beauty. It had a temple of Tiberius Caesar and therefore promoted emperor worship.

Smyrna was the second of the seven Christian congregations in Asia Minor to which the glorified Jesus Christ directed the apostle John to write a message. (Rev. 1:11) The congregation is poor materially, but is rich spiritually. It is tested by tribulation, evidently persecution, and is blasphemed by some calling themselves Jews, but who are actually “a synagogue of Satan.” However, despite their poverty and tribulation, Christians of the congregation in Smyrna are encouraged not to fear the things they will yet suffer, but to be “faithful even to death” in order to receive “the crown of life.”—Rev. 2:8-11.

SNAIL

Any of a variety of slow-moving mollusks, generally distinguished by their spiral or conical shells into which they can withdraw for protection. Numerous varieties of snails have been encountered in Palestine, but, on account of the dry climate, there are few slugs, that is, snails having no visible shell. Both slugs and snails secrete a slimy substance that protects them from abrasive injury as they crawl along. Many believe that the snail’s slimy trail is alluded to by the phrase “a snail melting away.” (Ps. 58:8) Another suggestion is that the reference is to the drying up of the snail in its shell when exposed for some time to the sun.

SNAKE

See SERPENT, SNAKE.

SNARE

See TRAP.

SNOW

Jehovah, the Producer of this marvel, can also control snowfall. (Job 37:6; Ps. 147:16) To serve His purpose, God has stored snow and hail “for the day of fight and war.”—Job 38:22, 23.

Each descending snow crystal washes out the atmosphere and carries with it such elements as sulfur and nitrogen, thus contributing to soil fertility while supplying moisture. (Isa. 55:10, 11) Snow can be a source of clean water for washing. (Job 9:30) Though either rare or unknown in certain areas of Palestine, it sometimes falls during January and February in hill country, as at Jerusalem. (Compare 2 Samuel 23:20; 1 Chronicles 11:22.) During most of the year there is snow in the heights and ravines of the Lebanon range, lofty Mount Hermon being snowcapped nearly all year long. (Jer. 18:14) Psalm 68:14 refers to snow in Zalmon, possibly Mount Zalmon near Shechem, unless mention of Bashan in verse 15 indicates a site E of the Jordan.

ILLUSTRATIVE USE

Snow is used in Scriptural similes to help convey the idea of whiteness. (Ex. 4:6; Num. 12:10; 2 Ki. 5:27; Dan. 7:9; Matt. 28:3; Rev. 1:14) Sometimes it is associated with purity. (Isa. 1:18; Lam. 4:7) For example, David begged God to purify him from sin, washing him that he might become “whiter even than snow.”—Ps. 51:7.

Job’s three companions, being no source of true comfort to him, were likened to a winter torrent, swollen by melting ice and snow in the mountains but running dry in the heat of summer. (Job 6:15-17) Sheol is said to snatch away sinners as drought and heat do snow waters. (Job 24:19) Just as snow is unnatural and would harm crops in summer, so “glory is not fitting for a stupid one.” (Prov. 26:1) However, a faithful envoy, one who would fulfill his commission to the satisfaction of those sending him, is likened to a drink cooled with snow from the mountains and bringing refreshment on a hot day of harvest.—Prov. 25:13.

SNUFFERS

Golden implements used in connection with the lamps on the branches of the lampstand(s) in Israel’s tabernacle and temple. (Ex. 25:37, 38; 37:23; Num. 4:9; 1 Ki. 7:48, 49; 2 Chron. 4:19-21) The snuffers are designated by the dual Hebrew words mel·qa·hhaʹyim and mal·qa·hhaʹyim, derived from a root meaning “to take, grasp, seize.” Use of the dual form suggests a device possibly having two parts. Accordingly, at Isaiah 6:6 mel·qa·hhaʹyim denotes the “tongs” with which a seraph removed a glowing coal from the altar. A distinction is drawn between the lampstand “snuffers” and the “extinguishers” in use at the temple. (1 Ki. 7:49, 50; 2 Chron. 4:21, 22) Though not described in Scripture, the snuffers may have been tongs used to hold the burnt lampwicks, while the extinguishers may have been scissorlike utensils employed to cut off the burnt part of the wicks. At the tabernacle, these trimmings, held by means of the snuffers, were deposited in fire holders, apparently containers for holding such pieces until their disposal.—Ex. 37:23.

SO

An Egyptian king contemporary with Hoshea, the last king of the ten-tribe kingdom of Israel. When Hoshea conspired with So against Shalmaneser and stopped paying tribute to Assyria, Hoshea was imprisoned. (2 Ki. 17:3, 4) Attempts to identify So with secularly known Egyptian rulers of this general period (such as Osorkon IV or Shabako) are very uncertain, particularly so in view of the uncertainty of Egyptian chronology.—See CHRONOLOGY, pp. 324, 325.

SOBERNESS

The Greek words neʹpho (verb) and ne·phaʹli·os (adjective) carry the idea of being sober, moderate in habits, vigilant, watchful, or keeping the senses. Basically, they refer to being free from the influence of intoxicants. However, they are used mainly in the Scriptures in a figurative sense. A related word, e·kneʹpho, meaning, primarily, to return to one’s senses from drunkenness, is used in the Septuagint Version at Genesis 9:24: “Noah recovered [awoke] from the wine.” Also, the Greek term is used in the same version at Joel 1:5, where the prophet calls to the spiritual “drunkards” of Israel to ‘wake up,’ and at Habakkuk 2:19, where woe is foretold to the worshipers of idols who say to pieces of wood and stone, “Awake!”

In enumerating the qualifications for those who would be appointed as overseers in the Christian congregations, the apostle Paul states that the overseer should be “moderate in habits [Gr., ne·phaʹli·os].” This would include freedom from overindulgence in wine, as it is also stated that he is not to be “a drunken brawler.” The word ne·phaʹli·os would show that the man would have good sense and exercise moderation in other things, speech, conduct, manner, besides being habitually temperate in the use of liquor.—1 Tim. 3:2, 3.

Women in the congregation are given like counsel, to be “serious, not slanderous, moderate in habits, faithful in all things.” (1 Tim. 3:11) The aged men and women are similarly counseled, the older women setting an example “that they may recall the young women to their senses,” to be good wives and mothers, in subjection to their husbands.—Titus 2:2-5.

In correcting the congregation at Corinth, which had been influenced by certain men who were advocating wrong doctrine, Paul said: “Bad associations spoil useful habits. Wake up to soberness in a righteous way and do not practice sin, for some are without knowledge of God. I am speaking to move you to shame.” (1 Cor. 15:33, 34) They should wake up from the stupor of wrong doctrine, which was misleading some and causing spiritual sickness and even death. (1 Cor. 11:30) In similar vein he had written previously to the Thessalonians, who had been troubled by persons advocating things not taught by the apostles. He said, concerning “Jehovah’s day,” that that day would come suddenly but it would not overtake true, faithful Christians as it would thieves. Consequently, they should not be sleepy, but be sure they were alert; they should “stay awake and keep [their] senses [literally, ‘be sober’].”—1 Thess. 5:2-6, 8.

Paul also warned Timothy of the apostasy to come, with its danger to the integrity of those Christians who wished to remain true. Timothy, especially, as an overseer, had to be on guard to “keep [his] senses [be sober-minded] in all things,” to “suffer evil, do the work of an evangelizer, fully accomplish [his] ministry.” (2 Tim. 4:3-5) In keeping his senses, Timothy was to realize that Paul would not be on the scene much longer (2 Tim. 4:6-8), and Timothy himself would eventually pass off the scene, so he must commit the things learned to faithful men, who, in turn, would be adequately qualified to teach others. (2 Tim. 2:2) Thus the congregation would be built up as a bulwark against the apostasy to come, being “a pillar and support of the truth.”—1 Tim. 3:15.

The apostle Peter likewise, knowing that he and his fellow apostles would not be on hand much longer (2 Pet. 1:14), able to act as a restraint to the apostate movement instigated by the Devil, counseled Christians to hold fast to their salvation through Christ, ‘keeping their senses completely (literally, “being sober perfectly”), setting their hope upon the undeserved kindness that was to be brought to them at the revelation of Jesus Christ.’ (1 Pet. 1:13) Knowing the seriousness of the times, with growing persecution from the world, they should be sound in mind, watchful, vigilant, and should not neglect serious prayer, to obtain the strength they would need for endurance. (1 Pet. 4:7) He warned them to keep their senses, because the Devil was like a roaring lion seeking to devour, and a solid stand had to be taken against him. This required soberness, seriousness, self-control.—1 Pet. 5:8, 9.

SOCO(H)

(Soʹco[h]) [possibly thorn, or, thorny place].

1. A Judean city in the Shephelah, seemingly referred to as both Soco and Socoh. (Josh. 15:20, 33, 35) The Philistines collected their army together at Socoh and then camped at nearby Ephesdammim before Goliath’s encounter with David. (1 Sam. 17:1) Years later this Soco was apparently among the cities that Rehoboam strengthened. (2 Chron. 11:5-7; however, this passage may apply to No. 2 below.) Nevertheless, Soco, along with its dependent towns, was captured by the Philistines more than two hundred years later, during King Ahaz’ rule. (2 Chron. 28:16-18) It seems to be represented by the ruins at Khirbet ʽAbbad, some sixteen and a half miles (26.5 kilometers) SW of Jerusalem. Khirbet Shuweikeh, a short distance to the E, seems to preserve the Biblical name.

2. Socoh, a city in the mountainous region of Judah. (Josh. 15:20, 48) It is often identified with a different Khirbet Shuweikeh, some ten and a half miles (17 kilometers) S-SW of Hebron.

3. Socoh, a place under the administration of one of Solomon’s deputies. (1 Ki. 4:7, 10) The suggested identification of it with Tell er-Ras, about ten and a half miles (17 kilometers) NW of Samaria, seems to fit the account, as the proposed sites of both Arubboth and Hepher (mentioned with Socoh in the Kings account) are nearby.

4. In the genealogy of Judah, Heber is called “the father of Soco.” (1 Chron. 4:18) Soco could be a personal name of Heber’s descendant; or, the text could indicate that Heber was the founder of the city of Soco or its population. Assuming that this latter situation was the case, it is not possible to determine whether the reference is to Soco(h) No. 1 or No. 2.

SODI

(Soʹdi) [intimacy of Jah].

A Zebulunite whose son Gaddiel represented his tribe in spying out the Promised Land.—Num. 13:2, 10.

SODOM

(Sodʹom).

This city was situated along the SE boundary of Canaan. (Gen. 10:19; 13:12) Often mentioned along with Gomorrah, Sodom seems to have been the most prominent of five cities, all of which were apparently located at the Low Plain of Siddim. (Gen. 14:2, 3) This plain is believed to have been that area now submerged beneath the southern part of the Dead Sea, S of the tongue of land called the Lisan, which extends outward from the eastern shore.—See SALT SEA.

When Abraham and Lot decided to move farther apart, to avoid disputes among their herdsmen, Lot went eastward into the well-watered District of the Jordan and pitched his tent near Sodom. There he found that “the men of Sodom were bad and were gross sinners against Jehovah,” much to Lot’s distress. (Gen. 13:5-13; 2 Pet. 2:7, 8) Sometime later, after a twelve-year subjection to Chedorlaomer, king of Elam, the inhabitants of Sodom and the other four cities rebelled. In the following year, Chedorlaomer and his allies defeated Bera, the king of Sodom, and his confederates. Besides seizing possessions and foodstuffs, the victors took Lot and others captive.—Gen. 14:1-12.

Abraham’s forces overtook Chedorlaomer and recovered the captives and booty, including Lot and his household. The king of Sodom insisted that Abraham keep the recovered material goods, but Abraham refused, lest Bera should say, “It was I who made Abram rich.”—Gen. 14:13-24.

Sodom, however, persisted in a course in defiance of Jehovah, becoming known for such immoral practices as homosexuality. “The cry of complaint about Sodom and Gomorrah,” Jehovah declared, “yes, it is loud, and their sin, yes, it is very heavy.” God therefore sent his angels to destroy Sodom, with the assurance to Abraham that if ten righteous persons could be found in the place the whole city would be spared.—Gen. 18:16, 20-33.

The city showed it deserved destruction, for a vile mob of Sodomites, including boys and old men, surrounded Lot’s house attempting to rape his angelic guests. The next day, after Lot, his wife and two daughters left the city, Sodom and Gomorrah were destroyed by sulfur and fire. (Gen. 19:1-29; Luke 17:28, 29) Thereafter Sodom and Gomorrah became a proverbial figure of utter destruction from the hand of God Almighty (Deut. 29:23; Isa. 1:9; 13:19; Jer. 49:18; 50:40; Lam. 4:6; Amos 4:11; Zeph. 2:9; Rom. 9:29) and of extreme wickedness.—Deut. 32:32; Isa. 1:10; 3:9; Jer. 23:14; Ezek. 16:46-56; see GOMORRAH.

Jude mentions that “Sodom and Gomorrah . . . are placed before us as a warning example by undergoing the judicial punishment of everlasting fire.” This would not conflict with Jesus’ statement about a Jewish city that should reject the good news: “It will be more endurable for the land of Sodom and Gomorrah on Judgment Day than for that city.” Sodom and Gomorrah were everlastingly destroyed as cities, but this would not preclude a resurrection for people of those cities.—Jude 7; Matt. 10:15; compare Luke 11:32; 2 Peter 2:6.