termed the “mountain of meeting” because at the sanctuary there all mature Israelite males were to appear before the face of Jehovah three times each year. (Ex. 23:17) Psalm 48:1, 2 further confirms this identification by giving Mount Zion a northerly location, harmonizing with the “mountain of meeting” being in “the remotest parts of the north.”

MOURNING

Among Oriental peoples mourning was customarily accompanied by much outward display of grief, and this is reflected in the Biblical accounts of periods of mourning. One entire book of the Bible, Lamentations, is an expression of mourning over the fate of Jerusalem.

CAUSES OF MOURNING

Persons mourned to express repentance (Neh. 9:1, 2; Jonah 3:5-9), or due to the imminence of calamity (Esther 4:3; Jer. 6:26; Amos 5:16, 17), or because of a disastrous condition already prevailing (Joel 1:5-14). The most common cause of mourning, undoubtedly, was death. The death of a member of the immediate family set in motion a period of mourning (Gen. 23:2; 27:41; 37:33-35), while the death of a parent or of an only son are set out as occasions of the deepest grief. (Ps. 35:14; Amos 8:10; Zech. 12:10) The death of a national leader occasioned periods of mourning lasting from seven up to thirty days. (Num. 20:29; Deut. 34:8; 1 Sam. 31:8, 12, 13) The Egyptians continued to shed tears over the death of Joseph’s father Jacob for seventy days, with an additional seven-day period of mourning rites in Canaan.—Gen. 50:3-11.

WAYS OF EXPRESSING SORROW

Mourning was given expression vocally and by weeping, as well as by disfigurement of the physical appearance and by fasting or otherwise abstaining from normal practices. Wailing or loud and bitter crying might accompany the weeping (2 Sam. 1:11, 12; Esther 4:1), the chest was beaten (Isa. 32:11, 12; Nah. 2:7; Luke 8:52), garments were often ripped apart (Judg. 11:35; 2 Ki. 22:11, 19), dust or ashes might be cast on the head and sackcloth be worn (2 Sam. 13:19; 2 Ki. 6:30; Job 2:11, 12), sandals might be removed and the head or face covered (2 Sam. 15:30; 19:4), the hair might be pulled or cut off, and the beard shaved (Job 1:20; Ezra 9:3; Jer. 41:5), while some persons, following pagan practices, made cuts in their body (Jer. 16:6; 47:5). In addition to fasting, the person might abstain from rubbing himself with oil or washing his garments (2 Sam. 14:2; 19:24; Dan. 10:2, 3), sometimes sitting on the ground or amid ashes.—2 Sam. 13:31; Job 2:8; Isa. 3:26.

Plaintive elegies at times were composed as songs of mourning. (2 Sam. 1:17-27; 3:33, 34; 2 Chron. 35:25) A particular type of song was the “Shiggaion,” a Hebrew term that occurs in the heading of Psalm 7 and in Habakkuk 3:1. This was a dirgelike composition and apparently indicates a wild, passionate song with rapid changes of rhythm. It will be noted in both of these references (Ps. 7; Hab. 3:1-19) that the elements of danger, strong outbursts of appeal or emotion, and subsequent rejoicing in Jehovah are present.

Occasionally professional mourners were employed at funerals, and musicians played mournful tunes (Jer. 9:17, 18; Matt. 9:23), imitated by little children playing in the marketplaces in the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry. (Matt. 11:16, 17) The pipe or flute was the preferred instrument for lamentation.—Jer. 48:36; Matt. 9:23; see Josephus’ Wars of the Jews, Book III, chap. IX, par. 5.

Following a burial the women customarily visited the grave, to weep and mourn. (John 11:31) A funeral meal seems to have been served sometime during the mourning period, and, in some instances, appears to have been made into a special feast.—Hos. 9:4; Jer. 16:5, 7.

PROHIBITIONS INVOLVING MOURNING

On occasion God’s people as a body or certain individuals were instructed not to mourn, as for condemned wrongdoers. (Lev. 10:1, 2, 6) The prophet Ezekiel was commanded to adopt none of the signs of mourning for his deceased wife, thereby serving as a portent for the Israelites with him in Babylon that they should not mourn the divine execution of judgment on Jerusalem for its unfaithfulness. (Ezek. 24:15-24) Jeremiah received somewhat similiar instructions.—Jer. 16:5-13.

Certain mourning practices were forbidden under the Mosaic law, including the inflicting of cuts in the flesh or causing of “baldness on your foreheads” (Lev. 19:28; Deut. 14:1), and the misuse of tithes in connection with the dead. (Deut. 26:12-14) For certain members of their immediate families the priests could mourn openly, but the high priest was restricted from doing so.—Lev. 21:1-6, 10-12.

A TIME TO MOURN

Ecclesiastes 3:1, 4 states that there is “a time to weep and a time to laugh; a time to wail and a time to skip about.” In view of all mankind’s dying condition, the heart of the wise ones is shown to be “in the house of mourning” rather than in the banquet house. (Eccl. 7:2, 4; compare Proverbs 14:13.) Thus, the wise person makes use of his opportunity to express sympathy and give comfort, rather than ignore such occasion in favor of pleasure-seeking. This helps him to keep in mind his own mortal state and to keep his heart in a right attitude toward his Creator.

Valid motives for mourning are set forth in the Scriptures. In addition to the death of loved ones (Gen. 42:38; 44:31), detestable and God-dishonoring practices of false religion are a cause for sighing and groaning (Ezek. 9:4; compare 1 Corinthians 5:2), and grief is rightly expressed due to one’s own errors. (Ps. 38:4, 6-10) Those who have drawn away from him Jehovah urges: “Come back to me with all your hearts, and with fasting and with weeping and with wailing. And rip apart your hearts, and not your garments.” (Joel 2:12, 13; compare James 4:8, 9.) Elsewhere, also, stress is laid, not on the external expressions of grief or mourning, but on the inner stirrings and pain of heart marking genuine sadness.—Ps. 31:9, 10; Prov. 14:10; 15:13; Mark 14:72; John 16:6.

Even Jehovah speaks of himself as being “hurt at his heart.” (Gen. 6:6; compare Isaiah 63:9.) God’s holy spirit can also be ‘grieved.’ (Eph. 4:30) Since that spirit works in God’s servants toward the producing of fruits of righteousness (Gal. 5:22-24), those who fail to appreciate this divine provision, who resist its working and who go contrary to its leading are, in effect, “grieving” it.—Compare Isaiah 63:10; 1 Thessalonians 5:19.

A BALANCED VIEW OF MOURNING

In the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry mourning was still frequently carried on by the people with much outward expression and accompanying noise and confusion. (Mark 5:38, 39) Though Jesus ‘groaned within himself’ and wept on a number of occasions (John 11:33-35, 38; Luke 19:41; Mark 14:33, 34; Heb. 5:7), there is no record of his employing the other more ostentatious expressions already described. (Compare Luke 23:27, 28.) His disciples likewise expressed grief and mourning. (Matt. 9:15; John 16:20-22; Acts 8:2; 9:39; 20:37, 38; Phil. 2:27) Paul expressed “great grief and unceasing pain in [his] heart” over his unbelieving relatives according to the flesh (Rom. 9:2, 3), feared that he might have to mourn over those in the congregation at Corinth who had sinned and had still not repented (2 Cor. 12:21), and mentioned “with weeping” those who had turned aside to walk “as the enemies of the torture stake of the Christ.” (Phil. 3:17-19) His deep and heartfelt concern for the Christian congregation (2 Cor. 2:1-4) qualified him to instruct others on the need for empathy and sympathy, ‘weeping with people who weep.’—Rom. 12:15.

However, in view of the weakening effect of mourning and grief (Ps. 6:6, 7; Luke 22:45; Acts 21:13; 2 Cor. 2:6, 7), Christian sorrow is shown always to be tempered, balanced, and even overshadowed by hope and strength-giving joy. (Matt. 5:4; 1 Cor. 7:29, 30; 2 Cor. 6:10; compare Nehemiah 8:9-12.) Even in his day King David manifested a balanced, sensible and principled viewpoint as to mourning, so that, while the child conceived through his adulterous relationship with Bath-sheba was ill, David fasted and lay on the earth, seeking the true God in the child’s behalf. But, learning of the child’s death, David thereupon got up, washed, rubbed himself with oil, changed clothes, prayed to Jehovah, and then requested food and began to eat. In explaining his acts to his surprised attendants, he stated: “Now that he has died, why is it I am fasting? Am I able to bring him back again? I am going to him, but, as for him, he will not return to me.” (2 Sam. 12:16, 19-23) Later, however, he needed help from straight-speaking Joab to pull out of his state of deep grief over his son Absalom’s death.—2 Sam. 18:33; 19:1-8.

Though “all creation keeps on groaning,” the sufferings of the Christian are minor compared to the glorious hope ahead (Rom. 8:18-22; 1 Pet. 1:3-7), and the promise of the resurrection enables him not to “sorrow just as the rest also do who have no hope.”—1 Thess. 4:13, 14.

Mourning and fasting without obedience to Jehovah’s word are insincere and of no benefit. (Zech. 7:2-7) However, “sadness in a godly way makes for repentance to salvation.” Such sadness is the result of a person’s seeing a wrongdoing as a sin against God. It moves him to seek God’s forgiveness and to turn around from his wrong course. “But the sadness of the world produces death.” Although a person may be sad that his wrong was exposed and that this has meant loss to him, he has no desire to gain God’s forgiveness. (2 Cor. 7:10, 11) For example, Esau’s tears shed selfishly in hope of regaining his forfeited birthright had no effect on Isaac nor on God.—Heb. 12:16, 17.

FIGURATIVE AND PROPHETIC USE

Figuratively, even the land is represented as mourning due to devastations caused by invading armies or by a plague. (Jer. 4:27, 28; Joel 1:10-12; contrast Psalm 96:11-13.) In its desolation, the land would grow up in weeds and develop a neglected, uncared-for appearance, like that of a person who has not attended to his face, hair or clothing while in mourning. Similarly, land devastated by a plague upon the crops presents a mournful sight.

The “sign of the Son of man” and Christ’s revelation are to cause all the tribes of the earth to “beat themselves in lamentation,” or “in grief.” (Matt. 24:30; Rev. 1:7) Upon symbolical “Babylon the great” plagues—death, mourning and famine—are foretold to come “in one day,” causing those who have benefited from her to weep and mourn. (Rev. 18:2, 7-11, 17-19) By contrast, the New Jerusalem brings in conditions upon earth in which tears, death, mourning, outcry and pain pass away for all time.—Rev. 21:2-4.

MOUTH

While God designed this organ to receive and prepare food for the stomach, he created the human mouth for speaking also. All such speech should result in praise to Him. (Ps. 34:1; 51:15; 71:8; 145:21) The psalmist has declared that everything that has breath will praise Jehovah; therefore humans must use their mouths to do this if they desire to live. The apostle Paul explains that belief in God and his Son, even believing with the heart, is not enough. It has to be accompanied by public declaration in order to bring salvation.—Ps. 150:6; Rom. 10:10.

JEHOVAH PROVIDES MOUTH WITH WORDS

In harmony with his purpose and his right and power as Creator, Jehovah can put the proper words into the mouth of his servant. In the case of his prophets, he did so miraculously, by inspiration. (Ex. 4:11, 12, 15; Jer. 1:9) In one instance he caused even a dumb animal, an ass, to speak. (Num. 22:28, 30; 2 Pet. 2:15, 16) Today God’s servants can have his words in their mouths, not by inspiration, but from his inspired written Word, which equips them completely for every good work. (2 Tim. 3:16, 17) They no longer have to wait for Christ to come to provide the good news, nor do they need to go to some other source for what they preach. They have it right before them, ready to speak, as they are told: “The word is near you, in your own mouth and in your own heart.”—Rom. 10:6-9; Deut. 30:11-14.

CAN BRING LIFE OR DEATH

It follows that the proper use of the mouth is vital, and so Jehovah declares it to be. His Word says: “The mouth of the righteous one is a source of life.” (Prov. 10:11) The mouth, therefore, has to be guarded most carefully (Ps. 141:3; Prov. 13:3; 21:23), for stupid misuse of it can bring its owner to ruin. (Prov. 10:14; 18:7) God holds a person accountable for what that one brings forth from his mouth. (Matt. 12:36, 37) One may speak hastily, making a rash vow. (Eccl. 5:4-6) He may flatter another, to that person’s overthrow and his own condemnation. (Prov. 26:28) It is especially important to guard one’s mouth when before the wicked, because a slight deviation from what God’s wisdom directs his servant to say can bring reproach on God’s name and may cause that one’s death. (Ps. 39:1) Jesus gave a fine example of submissiveness to God’s will without complaint or any reviling of his wicked opposers.—Isa. 53:7; Acts 8:32; 1 Pet. 2:23.

The Christian must exercise constant vigilance, for he is imperfect; therefore he needs to watch his heart. Jesus said that it is not what goes into the mouth that defiles a man, but what comes forth from the mouth, for “out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaks.” (Matt. 12:34; 15:11) The mind can help the heart and preserve the soul by not letting everything come forth from the mouth without thought, without considering the consequences. This requires the person to use his mind to apply the good things learned from God’s Word.—Prov. 13:3; 21:23.

A POWERFUL INSTRUMENT

Since the power of the mouth is great for good or bad, when Jehovah guides the mouth, great results are attained. He made Isaiah’s mouth “like a sharp sword,” and the words in Jeremiah’s mouth “a fire.” Jehovah backed up their prophetic words by his power and they came true. (Isa. 49:2; Jer. 5:14) On the other hand, it is dangerous to listen to anything that comes out of the mouth of a person known to be an apostate; it can bring a person to ruin.—Prov. 11:9.

FIGURATIVE USE

God represents himself symbolically as having a mouth. None of his pronouncements are uttered to no purpose, in vain; they will be fulfilled to the smallest detail. (Isa. 55:10, 11) Therefore, those who desire life must live by every word proceeding from his mouth. (Deut. 8:3; Matt. 4:4) When on earth his Son Jesus Christ conformed his whole life to his Father’s words and now has universal authority granted him. As Jehovah’s king, he will strike the earth with “the rod of his mouth.” (Isa. 11:4) The vision of Revelation shows him smiting the nations with a long sword proceeding out of his mouth. (Rev. 19:15, 21) This figure of speech evidently represents the authority he will exercise in command of all Jehovah’s heavenly armies in ordering and supervising the warfare that results in the execution of God’s enemies.

“Mouth” is often used synonymously for speech or