with the burial of King Asa of Judah there was an extraordinarily great funeral burning, not a cremation, however, but a burning of spices. (2 Chron. 16:14) Anciently spices were added to wines to increase their “headiness.”—Song of Sol. 8:2.

The garden spice or spice plants referred to in The Song of Solomon (5:1, 13; 6:2) may denote fragrant herbs generally, or, as suggested by some scholars, balsam (Balsamodendron opobalsamum). Although condiments such as cummin, mint, dill and salt are mentioned in the Bible, the various original-language words translated “spice” and “spices” are not applied to food seasonings.

SPIDER

A small, eight-legged, wingless animal that, according to strict biological definition, is not an insect but an arachnid. Most spiders spin webs to catch their prey. They are beneficial to man by keeping the insect population in check. Spiders generally have three pairs of spinnerets or spinning organs located on the rear underside of the abdomen. These are linked with the silk glands inside the creature’s body by means of many minute tubes. To spin its thread, the spider presses its spinning organs against an object and forces out some liquid silk. Moving away from the object, it draws out the liquid, which, in turn, hardens in the air. By keeping its spinnerets together the spider can produce one thick thread. A band of fine threads results when the spinning organs are held apart. Comparatively, the spider’s silken thread has a tensile strength far greater than steel and can be stretched a fifth beyond its normal length before breakage occurs.

The web, differing according to the variety of spider making it, is beautiful in symmetry and complex in design, displaying the complicated principles of logarithms. At equidistant intervals on the silken strands are drops of glue, likewise made by the spider. After having laid a line between two spokes and smeared it with glue, the spider pulls down the thread and then lets it snap back. This results in the equidistant spacing of the tiny glue droplets. The sticky thread serves to trap the spider’s prey.

In its two occurrences in Scripture the spider figures in an illustrative setting. Bildad, in speaking to Job, referred to an apostate as one who trusts in or leans upon a “spider’s house,” or web, something that would be too frail to keep him standing. (Job 8:14, 15) The hurtful and violent works of unfaithful Israelites are likened to the weaving of a spider’s web. However, such unfaithful ones could not cover themselves with their works, any more than a cobweb would be suitable for a garment.—Isa. 59:5, 6.

SPIES

From Israel’s encampment in the wilderness of Paran, in 1512 B.C.E., Moses sent twelve chieftains (representing all the tribes except Levi) to search out the land of Canaan. This was permitted by Jehovah at the request of the Israelites, who said: “Do let us send men ahead of us that they may search out the land for us and bring us back word concerning the way by which we should go up and the cities to which we will come.” (Deut. 1:22, 23) Probably separating, perhaps into twos, they traveled through the land as far N as Hamath and W toward the sea. On returning, though all agreed that the land was indeed “flowing with milk and honey,” ten of the spies gave a faithless report that put fear into the Israelites. Only Joshua and Caleb encouraged them to go on into the land and take it. For Israel’s lack of faith in listening to the bad report, God decreed that all the men who were twenty years of age and above should die in the wilderness during an extended period of forty years’ wandering. Joshua and Caleb were excepted and the tribe of Levi was not included.—Num. 13:1-33; 14:6-38; Deut. 1:24-40.

Joshua sent two spies across the Jordan to spy out Jericho in 1473 B.C.E. Rahab the harlot assisted the spies, and was delivered with her household when Jericho fell. (Josh. 2:1-24; 6:1, 22-25; Heb. 11:31) Other instances of spying are mentioned at Judges 1:22-26; 18:1-10, 14, 17; 1 Samuel 26:4. David’s messengers to King Hanun of Ammon were charged with being spies and mistreated. (2 Sam. 10:1-7) Absalom sent spies throughout Israel, not so much to gain information for his conspiracy against David, as to stir up support for his subversive cause.—2 Sam. 15:10-12.

The apostle Paul wrote about his visit to Jerusalem with Barnabas and Titus, mentioning that at the time there were “false brothers brought in quietly, who sneaked in to spy upon our freedom which we have in union with Christ Jesus.”—Gal. 2:1-5.

SPIKENARD

A small aromatic plant (Nardostachys jatamansi) found in the Himalaya mountains. The stems and roots of this plant are generally considered to be the source of the nard or spikenard mentioned in Scripture. (Song of Sol. 1:12; 4:13, 14; Mark 14:3) The spikenard plant is distinguished by its clusters of blackish, hairy stems, about two inches (c. 5 centimeters) long, that branch out from the top of the root. The leaves sprout from the upper portion of the plant, which is terminated by heads of pink flowers.

To preserve its fragrance, nard, a light, fragrant, reddish-colored liquid, was sealed in cases of alabaster, a soft, usually whitish, marblelike stone named after Alabastron, Egypt, where vessels of this material were manufactured. The pound of perfumed oil, “genuine nard,” poured by Mary from an alabaster case upon the head and feet of Jesus Christ, ‘in view of his burial,’ was evaluated at 300 denarii ($48.00), the equivalent of about a year’s wages. (Mark 14:3-9; John 12:3-8; Matt. 20:2) The fact that this perfumed oil was so expensive suggests that its source may have been distant India.

SPINNING

The process of drawing out and twisting together into thread or yarn plant or animal fibers (flax, cotton, wool, goat’s hair, and so forth). Spun threads were used for weaving, sewing, embroidering or the making of rope. Among the Hebrews and others the distaff and spindle were employed in this process. It is said concerning the capable wife: “Her hands she has thrust out to the distaff, and her own hands take hold of the spindle.”—Prov. 31:19.

The distaff was a stick on which the cleansed and combed or carded (Isa. 19:9) fibers were loosely wound. Methods varied, but one way was to hold the distaff in the left hand. The fibers were drawn from it to some length and attached to the spindle. This was a shorter stick with a hook at one end to hold the fibers and a whorl (a disc of heavy material such as stone) near the other end. Using the right hand, the spinner twirled the hanging spindle, thus twisting the fibers into thread. This spun thread was next wound around the shank of the spindle and fastened. Then the operation was repeated until all the fibers on the distaff had been made into one long thread.

Both men and women of ancient Egypt spun thread, but among the Hebrews women particularly seem to have done the spinning. Israelite women were privileged to spin and contribute materials when the tabernacle was to be constructed.—Ex. 35:25, 26.

Jesus Christ referred to spinning when he urged his disciples not to be unduly anxious about clothing, but to trust in God to clothe them. Jesus said: “Mark well how the lilies grow; they neither toil nor spin; but I tell you, Not even Solomon in all his glory was arrayed as one of these.”—Luke 12:27, 28; Matt. 6:28-30.

SPIRIT

[Heb., ruʹahh; Gr., pneuʹma].

The English word “spirit” is from the Latin spirare, meaning “to breathe” (noun form spiritus, “a breath,” “breathing”), the words “respiration,” “expiration” and “inspiration” all being derived from the same source. Similarly the Greek pneuʹma comes from pneʹo, meaning “to breathe or blow,” and the Hebrew ruʹahh is believed to come from a root having the same meaning.

The noun forms ruʹahh and pneuʹma, then, basically mean “breath” but have extended meanings beyond that basic sense. (Compare Habakkuk 2:19; Revelation 13:15.) They can also mean wind; the vital force in living creatures; one’s spirit, dominant feeling or disposition; spirit persons, including God and his angelic creatures; and God’s active force or holy spirit. (Compare Koehler and Baumgartner’s Lexicon in Veteris Testamenti Libros, pages 877-879; Brown, Driver and Briggs’ Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament, pages 924-926; Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, edited by G. Kittel, Vol. VI, pages 332-451.) All these meanings have something in common: they all refer to that which is invisible to human sight and which gives evidence of force in motion. Such invisible force is capable of producing visible effects.

Another Hebrew word, n^esha·mahʹ (Gen. 2:7) also means “breath,” but is more limited in range of meaning than ruʹahh. The Greek pno·eʹ seems to have a similar limited sense (Acts 17:25), and was used by the Septuagint translators to render n^esha·mahʹ.

WIND

Consider first the sense that is perhaps easiest to grasp. The context in many cases shows ruʹahh to mean “wind,” as the “east wind” (Ex. 10:13), the “four winds.” (Zech. 2:6) The mention of such things as clouds, storm, the blowing of chaff or things of similar nature appearing in the context often makes evident this sense. (Num. 11:31; 1 Ki. 18:45; 19:11; Job 21:18, and so forth.) Because the four winds are used to mean the four directions—east, west, north and south—ruʹahh at times may be rendered as ‘direction’ or ‘side.’—1 Chron. 9:24; Jer. 49:36; 52:23; Ezek. 42:16-20.

Job 41:15, 16 says of Leviathan’s closely fitting scales that “not even air [ruʹahh] can come in between them.” Here again ruʹahh represents air in motion, not merely air in a quiescent or motionless state. Thus the thought of an invisible force is present, the basic characteristic of the Hebrew ruʹahh.

Evidently the only case in the Christian Greek Scriptures in which pneuʹma is used in the sense of “wind” is at John 3:8.

Man cannot exercise control over the wind, cannot guide, direct, restrain or possess it. Because of this, “wind [ruʹahh]” frequently stands for that which is uncontrollable or unattainable by man, elusive, transitory, in vain, of no genuine benefit. (Compare Job 6:26; 7:7; 8:2; 16:3; Proverbs 11:29; 27:15, 16; 30:4; Ecclesiastes 1:14, 17; 2:11; Isaiah 26:18; 41:29, and so forth.) For a full discussion of this aspect, see WIND.

SPIRIT PERSONS

God is invisible to human eyes (Ex. 33:20; John 1:18; 1 Tim. 1:17), and he is alive and exercises unsurpassed force throughout the universe. (2 Cor. 3:3; Isa. 40:25-31) Christ Jesus states: “God is a Spirit [Pneuʹma].” The apostle writes: “Now Jehovah is the Spirit.” (John 4:24; 2 Cor. 3:17, 18) The temple built on Christ as foundation cornerstone is “a place for God to inhabit by spirit.”—Eph. 2:22.

This does not mean that God is an impersonal, bodiless force like the wind. The Scriptures unmistakably testify to his personality; he also has location so that Christ could speak of ‘going to his Father,’ this in order that he might “appear before the person of God [literally “face of God”] for us.” (John 16:28; Heb. 9:24; compare 1 Kings 8:43; Psalm 11:4; 113:5, 6.) For further discussion, see JEHOVAH (The Person Identified by the Name).

The expression “my spirit” (ruʹahh) used by God at Genesis 6:3 may mean “I the Spirit,” even as his use of “my soul” (neʹphesh) has the sense of “I the person,” or “my person.” (Isa. 1:14; see SOUL [God as Having Soul].) He thereby contrasts his heavenly spiritual position with that of earthly fleshly man.

God’s Son

God’s “only-begotten son,” the Word, was a spirit person like his Father, hence “existing in God’s form” (Phil. 2:5-8), but later “became flesh,” residing among mankind as the man Jesus. (John 1:1, 14) Completing his earthly course, he was “put to death in the flesh, but [was] made alive in the spirit.” (1 Pet. 3:18) His Father resurrected him, granted his Son’s request to be glorified alongside the Father with the glory he had had in his prehuman state (John 17:4, 5), and God made him “a life-giving spirit.” (1 Cor. 15:45) The Son thus became again invisible to human sight, dwelling “in unapproachable light, whom not one of men has seen or can see.”—1 Tim. 6:14-16.

Other spirit creatures

Angels are designated by the terms ruʹahh and pneuʹma in a number of texts. (1 Ki. 22:21, 22; Ezek. 3:12, 14; 8:3; 11:1, 24; 43:5; Acts 23:8, 9; 1 Pet. 3:19, 20) In the Christian Greek Scriptures the majority of such references are to wicked spirit creatures, demons.—Matt. 8:16; 10:1; 12:43-45; Mark 1:23-27; 3:11, 12, 30; and so forth.

Psalm 104:4 states that God makes “his angels spirits, his ministers a devouring fire.” Some translations would render this to read: “Who makest the winds thy messengers, fire and flame thy ministers,” or similarly. (RS, JP, AT, JB) Such translation of the Hebrew text is not inadmissible (compare Psalm 148:8); however, the apostle Paul’s quotation of the text (Heb. 1:7) coincides with that of the Septuagint and harmonizes with the rendering first given. (In the Greek text of Hebrews 1:7 the definite article [tous] is used before “angels,” not before “spirits [pneuʹma·ta],” making the angels the proper subject of the clause.) Barnes’ Notes on Hebrews says: “It is to be presumed that [Paul], who had been trained in the knowledge of the Hebrew language, would have had a better opportunity of knowing its [referring to Psalm 104:4] fair construction than we can; and it is morally certain, that he would employ the passage in an argument as it was commonly understood by those to whom he wrote—that is, to those who were familiar with the Hebrew language and literature.”—Compare Hebrews 1:14.

God’s angels, though capable of materializing human form and appearing to men, are not by nature material or fleshly, hence are Invisible. They are actively alive and able to exert great force, and the terms ruʹahh and pneuʹma therefore aptly describe them.

Ephesians 6:12 speaks of Christian wrestling, “not against blood and flesh, but against the governments, against the authorities, against the world rulers of this darkness, against the wicked spirit forces in the heavenly places.” The latter part of the text in Greek literally reads: “Toward the spiritual (things) [Gr., pneu·ma·ti·kaʹ] of the wickedness in the heavenly [places].” Most modern translations recognize that the reference here is not simply to something abstract, “spiritual wickedness” (AV), but refers to wickedness carried out by spirit persons. Thus, we have such renderings as: “the spirit-forces of evil on high” (AT), “the spiritual hosts of wickedness in the heavenly places” (RS), “the spiritual army of evil in the heavens” (JB), “the superhuman forces of evil in the heavens” (NE, 1970 ed).

GOD’S ACTIVE FORCE; HOLY SPIRIT

By far the majority of occurrences of ruʹahh and pneuʹma relate to God’s spirit, his holy spirit.

Not a person

It was not until the fourth century C.E. that the teaching that the holy spirit was a person and part of the “Godhead” became official church dogma. Earlier Christians, sometimes called church “fathers,”