Under the Law covenant, places and things that were contaminated had to be cleansed. If a murder was committed by an unknown assailant, it was first determined by measurement which was the nearest city to the crime. The elders of that city then had to take a young unworked cow (as a substitute for the murderer) and break its neck in a torrent valley with running water, and over the animal they had to cleanse themselves symbolically of any responsibility by washing their hands in innocence, pleading that the charge of guilt be not laid to their account.—Deut. 21:1-9.

Garments and vessels that came in contact with dead bodies or were polluted in other ways had to be cleansed according to prescribed formulas. (Lev. 11:32-35; 15:11, 12) The development of leprosy in a garment or in the walls of a house was a much more serious matter, for if it could not be contained and seemed to spread, it was necessary to destroy the garment or tear down the house completely.—Lev. 13:47-59; 14:33-53.

Spoils of war had to be cleansed before they could be brought in. Combustible articles were washed with water, but metal objects had to pass through the fire.—Num. 31:21-24.

Christian cleanness

Christians are not under the Law and its cleansing requirements even though such Law and its customs were still in force in the days when Jesus was on earth. (John 11:55) The Law had “a shadow of the good things to come”; ‘the reality belongs to Christ.’ (Heb. 10:1; Col. 2:17) Hence, Paul wrote concerning these purification matters: “Yes, nearly all things are cleansed with blood according to the Law [Moses sprinkled the book, the people, the tent and the vessels with blood], and unless blood is poured out no forgiveness takes place. Therefore it was necessary that the typical representations of the things in the heavens should be cleansed by these means.” “For if the blood of goats and of bulls and the ashes of a heifer sprinkled on those who have been defiled sanctifies to the extent of cleanness of the flesh, how much more will the blood of the Christ, who through an everlasting spirit offered himself without blemish to God, cleanse our consciences from dead works that we may render sacred service to the living God?”—Heb. 9:19-23, 13, 14.

So it is the blood of the Lord Jesus Christ that cleanses Christians from all sin and unrighteousness. (1 John 1:7, 9) Christ “loved the congregation and delivered up himself for it, that he might sanctify it, cleansing it with the bath of water by means of the word” in order for it to be spotless, holy and without blemish, “a people peculiarly his own, zealous for fine works.” (Eph. 5:25-27; Titus 2:14) Every member of this Christian congregation, therefore, should not “become forgetful of his cleansing from his sins of long ago,” but should continue to manifest the fruitage of God’s spirit (2 Pet. 1:5-9), remembering that “every one bearing fruit he [God] cleans, that it may bear more fruit.”—John 15:2, 3.

Christians must, therefore, maintain a high standard of physical, moral and spiritual cleanness, guarding against “every defilement of flesh and spirit.” (2 Cor. 7:1) Placing the greater emphasis on spiritual cleanliness, in view of what Jesus said, that it is ‘not what enters a man but what comes forth from him that defiles,’ these beneficiaries of the cleansing blood of Christ maintain “a clean heart” and “a clean conscience” before God. (Mark 7:15; 1 Tim. 1:5; 3:9; 2 Tim. 1:3) To such ones with a clean conscience “all things are clean,” in contrast with faithless persons who are defiled in conscience, to whom “nothing is clean.” (Titus 1:15) Those who want to remain clean and pure in heart heed the counsel of Isaiah 52:11, which says: “Touch nothing unclean; . . . keep yourselves clean, you who are carrying the utensils of Jehovah.” (Ps. 24:4; Matt. 5:8) Doing this, their “hands” in a figurative sense are cleansed (Jas. 4:8), and God deals with them as clean persons.—2 Sam. 22:27; Ps. 18:26; see also Daniel 11:35; 12:10.

Notwithstanding all that Paul wrote on these matters and the spiritual application that they bear, yet on one occasion he observed the old Law’s requirements by ceremonially cleansing himself at the temple. However, he did so that the Jews might not find any excuse to mob him except for the name of Christ; in this Paul proved himself innocent of charges of being a ‘Lawbreaker.’ (Acts 21:23, 24; 24:18) In a similar vein the apostle also argued that food in itself may be clean, but if his eating of it stumbled his brother, then he would refrain from eating. (Rom. 14:14, 15, 20, 21; 1 Cor. 8:13) In all of this Paul showed a great concern for the salvation of others and did everything in his power to bring this about. He therefore could say: “I am clean from the blood of all men.”—Acts 20:26; 18:6.

CLEMENT

(Clemʹent) [mild, merciful].

A faithful Christian who fought side by side with the apostle Paul, presumably at Philippi, for the sake of the “good news.” (Phil. 4:3) The name “Clement” was quite common and therefore provides no valid basis for connecting him with Clement of Rome, as is done by Origen.

CLEOPAS

(Cleʹo·pas) [renowned father, perhaps a contraction of Cleopatros].

One of the two disciples, neither of whom were apostles, who traveled to Emmaus on Jesus’ resurrection day. When Jesus joined them as a stranger and asked what they were debating, Cleopas replied: “Are you dwelling as an alien by yourself in Jerusalem and so do not know the things that have occurred in her in these days?” After Jesus explained many scriptures to them and then identified himself, Cleopas and his companion, instead of staying overnight in Emmaus, hastened back to Jerusalem and reported these things to the others. (Luke 24:13-35) This Greek name Cleopas should not be confused with the Aramaic name Clopas.—John 19:25.

CLOPAS

(Cloʹpas).

The husband of one of the Marys that stood beside Jesus as he hung on the torture stake. (John 19:25) Presumably he was the husband of “the other Mary,” and father of the apostle James the Less and his brother Joses. (Matt. 27:56; 28:1; Mark 15:40; 16:1; Luke 24:10) It is quite probable and generally recognized that Clopas was the same person that was called Alphaeus (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; Luke 6:15; Acts 1:13), the difference being explained either as a variation in the pronunciation of the Aramaic root or because the same individual had two names used interchangeably, a practice not uncommon at the time. That Clopas was a brother of Joseph, the foster father of Jesus, is a conjecture based entirely on tradition.

CLOTH

While little is known about the spinning and weaving processes used by the Israelites, it is evident that they were well acquainted with these crafts. In Egypt, archaeologists have unearthed wall paintings with illustrations of women weaving and spinning, showing the kind of loom that was used. An Egyptian model of a weaving shop with a horizontal loom was found near Girgeh, Upper Egypt.—See WEAVING.

The robe of fine white linen worn by the Aaronic high priest was to be woven in checker work, evidence that the Israelites were well acquainted with the art, being able to weave patterns into their fabrics.—Ex. 28:39.

In the construction of the tabernacle Bezalel and Oholiab were experts and their ability was increased and sharpened by God’s holy spirit, so that they could do the required work exactly according to the pattern given by Jehovah. (Ex. 35:30-35) Also, there were women with fine ability in this direction, spinning thread from flax and wool. (Ex. 35:25, 26) In making the fabric for the ephod of Aaron the high priest, the workmen “beat plates of gold to thin sheets, and . . . cut out threads to work in among the blue thread and the wool dyed reddish purple and the coccus scarlet material and the fine linen, as the work of an embroiderer.”—Ex. 39:2, 3.

The Greek Scriptures mention fabrics made of camel’s hair and of silk. (Matt. 3:4; Rev. 18:12) It is not known whether the Hebrews used cotton. Cotton is mentioned at Esther 1:6 as being used in the Persian palace at Shushan. Cotton was known in India, probably at least as early as 800 B.C.E. and the historian Pliny says that it was used in Egypt. It is grown today in the area of ancient Palestine. However, certain materials not native to Palestine could be obtained by the Hebrews from traveling merchants from both East and West passing through Palestine.

Linen has much longer fibers than cotton and is easier to spin, but it is harder to dye. Linen was a cherished item in the wardrobes of kings and high officials. Joseph was clothed with “garments of fine linen” when he was made a ruler in Egypt. (Gen. 41:42) Also, Mordecai went out from before the Persian king in royal apparel of blue and linen. (Esther 8:15) Women valued clothing made of linen.—Prov. 31:22.

Other materials used for garments were skins and leather and hair. Tents were made of skins or of goat’s hair. (Ex. 26:7, 14) Samples of wool felt have been found. At 1 Samuel 19:13, a net of goats’ hair is mentioned.

COLORS

The people of Bible lands were doubtless able to make a great variety of colors of fabrics. In describing the curtains for the tabernacle and the garments in connection with the sanctuary, the Bible mentions blue, scarlet and reddish purple. (Ex. 26:1; 28:31, 33) A wide variety of shades and colors could be produced by using these three colors of dye on fabrics of originally different colors and shades. Joseph was given a striped garment by his father Jacob. (Gen. 37:3, 32) David’s daughter Tamar wore a striped robe, “for that was the way the daughters of the king, the virgins, used to dress with sleeveless coats.” (2 Sam. 13:18) By using different colors in the warp from those in the woof a variegated pattern could be produced.—See DYES, DYEING.

THE TABERNACLE

In the construction of the tabernacle, ten tent cloths of fine twisted linen and wool, embroidered with cherubs, constituted the immediate covering of the panel frames, so that these frames served as “shadow boxes” in which the cherubs could be seen by the priests serving inside the tabernacle. (Ex. 26:1, 2) Goat’s-hair cloth formed the next covering. (Ex. 26:7, 8) It was probably woven of only the very finest, softest part of the goat’s hair, which we might speak of as the “down,” far excelling the wool of lambs and sheep. Lustrous and soft like silk, it served as a fine protection for the embroidered linen. The curtains or screens hanging at the entrances of the Holy and Most Holy compartments were also of linen and wool, the screen of the Most Holy being embroidered with cherubs. (Ex. 26:31-37) The linen tent cloths were four cubits (about 6 feet or 1.8 meters) wide and twenty-eight cubits (about 41 feet or 12.5 meters) long. The N and S sides of the courtyard were one hundred cubits (about 146 feet or 44.5 meters).—Ex. 27:9-11.

Cloths of blue and of coccus scarlet material and of wool dyed reddish purple were used to cover the ark of the covenant, the table of showbread, the lampstand, the altar of incense, the altar of burnt offering and the other utensils of the ministry when the tabernacle was moved from one location to another. (The color or colors for each item were specified.)—Num. 4:4-14.

OTHER USES

When Lazarus was resurrected he came out of the tomb with his countenance still bound up with the cloth that had been placed over his head at burial, apparently a long piece of linen fabric. (John 11:44) In accordance with custom a cloth was also put upon Jesus’ head at his burial. The Jews had the custom of preparing bodies for burial by binding them with bandages of clean linen along with spices (not an embalming process such as the Egyptians practiced). (John 19:40; Matt. 27:59) After Jesus’ resurrection John and Peter found the bandages and the cloth that had been upon Jesus rolled up separately lying in the tomb. (John 20:5-7) Cloth bands were used as “swaddling bands” for newborn babies.—Luke 2:7.

Cloth was used in a murder on at least one occasion, when Hazael assassinated his master King Benhadad of Syria by dipping a coverlet of thick cloth in water and spreading it over the sick king’s face so that he died.—2 Ki. 8:15.

Money was sometimes kept wrapped in a cloth. This was the way the wicked slave referred to in one of Jesus’ illustrations kept his mina instead of investing it. (Luke 19:20) Money was often carried in the voluminous folds of the bosom of the garment, probably wrapped in such cloths.

God showed his recognition of Paul as his representative and put his seal of approval on Paul’s preaching by performing extraordinary works of power through cloths and aprons that were borne from Paul’s body to ailing people, curing them of diseases and throwing out wicked spirits from them. (Acts 19:11, 12) That this was due to God’s power and not to any magical power on the part of Paul himself is shown by the fact that seven sons of Sceva, a Jewish chief priest, who were not representing Jehovah and Jesus Christ, tried to exorcise demons but were overcome by a demonized man. Additionally, the effect of these powerful works of Jehovah was against magic, causing those who practiced magical arts to burn their books publicly.—Acts 19:13-20.

God’s law to Israel commanded: “You must not wear mixed stuff of wool and linen together.” (Deut. 22:11) This likely meant two kinds of yarn fibers spun together. God desired Israel to be a special people, separate from the other nations, pure and holy to him. In this respect this prohibition was similar to the listing of certain animals as “unclean” and not to be eaten. There may have been other practical considerations. It may have prevented fraud and misrepresentation by merchants. It may also have worked toward greater durability of the cloth, avoiding the difficulty that would arise in washing a cloth, for example, made of linen and wool together.

The Scriptures describe a “leprosy” that could develop in a garment of either wool or linen. This may have been some form of mildew or mold. Leviticus 13:47-59 deals with the detection and identification of leprosy in a garment and the process of dealing with the plague.—See LEPROSY.

FIGURATIVE USAGE

Because of the cleanness and purity of white linen it is used in the Scriptures to symbolize righteousness. The garments next to the high priest’s body, namely, the drawers, robe and turban, were made of fine white linen, as were the drawers, robes and headgears for the underpriests. (Ex. 28:39-42; compare Job 29:14.) The bride of the Lamb is arrayed in bright, clean, fine linen, for “the fine linen stands for the righteous acts of the holy ones.” (Rev. 19:8) The armies following Jesus Christ in heaven are represented as being clothed in white, clean, fine linen. (Rev. 19:14) Babylon the Great has been rich in the traffic of merchandise, which