The Western empires of Greece and Rome did not esteem the bow and arrow as highly as the Eastern nations, though at times archers played a significant role in their victories. This may have been due to the Greek method of drawing the bow to the body, a less effective style, instead of drawing to the cheek or eye as did the Egyptians and Persians. Mercenary Cretans and Asiatics seemed to have supplied the skilled bowmen, while the Greeks and Romans relied on the sword and spear.

See ARMS, ARMOR.

ARCHIPPUS

(Ar·chipʹpus) [master of the horse].

In his letter to the Colossian Christians Paul exhorts Archippus to faithfulness in the ministry, and in his letter to Philemon affectionately refers to him as a “fellow soldier.” (Col. 4:17; Philem. 2) Both letters, written near the end of Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (c. 60-61 C.E.), indicate that Archippus was then living in or near Colossae in Asia Minor.

ARCHITE

(Arʹchite).

Although the term could refer to a member of an unidentified Canaanite tribe, it appears more likely that it refers to a well-known family or clan located in the area of Ataroth, SW of Bethel. (Josh. 16:2) A town named ʽAin ʽArik to the W of Bethel is suggested by some as the source or the remaining evidence of the name. Hushai, David’s faithful counselor, was an Archite.—1 Chron. 27:33; see HUSHAI.

ARCHITECTURE

The art or science of building. The Bible shows a diversification of dwelling places and living habits early in human history, during the 1,656 years prior to the flood of Noah’s day. Cain, after the murder of Abel, is spoken of as ‘taking up residence’ in a certain area, and there “he engaged in building a city.” (Gen. 4:16, 17) Yet, one of his descendants, Jabal, became the “founder of those who dwell in tents and have livestock.” Another became a “forger of every sort of tool of copper and iron.” (Gen. 4:20, 22) The descendants of Cain perished at least by the time of the Flood; however, constructive ability and the use of tools did not perish with them.

The outstanding work of building of that pre-Flood period was done by descendants of Seth: the ark constructed by Noah and his sons. While the basic plans and dimensions were provided by God, yet some architectonic ability must doubtless be attributed to Noah as the human director of works. It was 43.8 feet (13.4 meters) high, with a length of 437.5 feet (133.5 meters), and a width of 72.9 feet (22.3 meters). It could have had about 2.1 acres (.9 hectares) of floor space. The three floors, plus the wide roof span probably required the use of some wooden columns and beams, in addition to the ‘compartment’ divisions, to support the weight, as well as to give the structure necessary stability. Although the ark was caulked with tar, there would also be need for careful fitting of the timbers to ensure a reasonably watertight construction.—Gen. 6:13-16; see ARK.

EARLY POST-FLOOD CONSTRUCTION

In the post-Flood era Nimrod is described as a prominent builder of several cities. (Gen. 10:8-12) Another major building project was now put forward, the Tower of Babel, disapproved by God. Here, new materials are mentioned, kiln-baked bricks with bitumen serving as mortar. The tower was intended to be the highest structure up till that time.—Gen. 11:3, 4.

Abraham, the forefather of the Israelites, doubtless saw fairly advanced styles of architecture in Ur of the Chaldeans. (Gen. 11:31) Excavations there reveal evidences of city streets, two-story houses with brick stairs, and complexes of temples and palaces, considered as dating back to the third millennium B.C.E. Here, too, is found some of the earliest evidence of the use of the corbelled vault or cantilever arch (formed by building the two sides of a wall closer and closer together until the gap between them can be bridged with a row of stones or bricks), as well as of the true curved arch with keystone.

Later, during his stay in Egypt (Gen. 12:10), Abraham may have witnessed some of the architectural splendors of that land. The step-pyramid of King Djoser at Saqqara is supposed to date from the third millennium B.C.E. and is one of the earliest examples remaining of major constructions using cut stone. The Great Pyramid of Cheops, built somewhat later at Gizeh, has a huge base of thirteen acres (5.3 hectares) and was made of some 2,300,000 blocks of limestone, each weighing two and a half tons (2,268 kilograms) on the average. It was originally 481 feet (146.6 meters) high. Not only the size but also the precision achieved makes it a project amazing even modern engineers. Several centuries later at Karnak, farther up the Nile, the Egyptians produced the largest known temple built by man. The roof of its great hall was supported by 134 enormous columns, each over ten feet (3 meters) in diameter, decorated with richly colored reliefs.

ISRAELITE ARCHITECTURE

During the oppression of the Israelites in Egypt they did considerable building work as slaves under Egyptian taskmasters. (Ex. 1:11-14) Later, in the wilderness Jehovah gave them precise instructions for the construction of the tabernacle, with panel frames, socket pedestals, bars and pillars, which also required considerable architectonic ability on their part. (Ex. 25:9, 40; 26:15-37; Heb. 8:5) While the majority of those doing such work, and who had done building in Egypt, undoubtedly died before reaching the Promised Land, a concept of building methods and the use of tools was surely carried over by the survivors. (Compare Deuteronomy 27:5.) The Mosaic law prescribed at least one requirement for construction. (Deut. 22:8) The Israelites, upon conquering the land, of course, did take over entire cities and villages with their completed constructions, but they also did building themselves. (Num. 32:16; Deut. 6:10, 11; 8:12) At the time of their entry (1473 B.C.E.), Palestine was a land with numerous walled cities and strong fortifications.—Num. 13:28.

While it is true that no striking constructions remain to indicate Israelite originality or ingenuity as to architecture, it does not logically follow that they were lacking in such ability. Unlike the pagan nations, they did not erect huge monuments in honor of political rulers or military heroes. The one temple constructed was at Jerusalem, although apostasy produced other religious sites. Nothing remains of the original temple nor of its successor. Among the more impressive ruins uncovered are those of the identical city gates of ancient Megiddo and Gezer, thought to have been built in Solomon’s time. (1 Ki. 9:15) In each case the sixty-six-foot-long (20 meters) external walls were made with carefully drafted stones. Within the gate passage there were three successive pairs of jambs or extended piers, thus producing six recessed chambers flanking the passage on either side, in which business might be transacted or from which soldiers could harass any attempting to force their way through the gates. (See GATE.) At Megiddo and at Samaria examples of expert masonry have been found, the stones being carefully chiseled and laid and joined with fine precision, in some cases so exactly that even a thin knife blade cannot be inserted between the joined stones. Undoubtedly the work on the temple built by Solomon was of the same high quality.—1 Ki. 5:17; 6:7.