that the writers of the Christian Greek Scriptures used it to designate a stake with a crossbeam.—See IMPALEMENT; Kingdom Interlinear Translation, pages 1155-1157.

The book The Non-Christian Cross (pp. 23, 24), by John Denham Parsons, states: “There is not a single sentence in any of the numerous writings forming the New Testament, which, in the original Greek, bears even indirect evidence to the effect that the stauros used in the case of Jesus was other than an ordinary stauros; much less to the effect that it consisted, not of one piece of timber, but of two pieces nailed together in the form of a cross.

“. . . it is not a little misleading upon the part of our teachers to translate the word stauros as ‘cross’ when rendering the Greek documents of the Church into our native tongue, and to support that action by putting ‘cross’ in our lexicons as the meaning of stauros without carefully explaining that that was at any rate not the primary meaning of the word in the days of the Apostles, did not become its primary signification till long afterwards, and became so then, if at all, only because, despite the absence of corroborative evidence, it was for some reason or other assumed that the particular stauros upon which Jesus was executed had that particular shape.”

WHY JESUS HAD TO DIE ON A STAKE

At the time Jehovah God gave his law to the Israelites, they obligated themselves to abide by its terms. (Ex. 24:3) However, as descendants of sinner Adam, they were unable to do so perfectly. For this reason they came under the curse of the Law. To remove this special curse from them, Jesus had to be hanged on a stake like an accursed criminal. Concerning this the apostle Paul wrote: “All those who depend upon works of law are under a curse; for it is written: ‘Cursed is every one that does not continue in all the things written in the scroll of the Law in order to do them.’ . . . Christ by purchase released us from the curse of the Law by becoming a curse instead of us, because it is written: ‘Accursed is every man hanged upon a stake.’”—Gal. 3:10-13.

FIGURATIVE USE

“Torture stake” sometimes stands for the sufferings, shame or torture experienced because of being a follower of Jesus Christ. As Jesus said: “Whoever does not accept his torture stake and follow after me is not worthy of me.” (Matt. 10:38; 16:24; Mark 8:34; Luke 9:23; 14:27) The expression “torture stake” is also used in such a way as to represent Jesus’ death upon the stake, by means of which redemption from sin and reconciliation with God are made possible.—1 Cor. 1:17, 18.

Jesus’ death on the torture stake was the basis for removing the Law, which had separated the Jews from the non-Jews. Therefore, by accepting the reconciliation made possible by Jesus’ death, both Jews and non-Jews could become “one body to God through the torture stake.” (Eph. 2:11-16; Col. 1:20; 2:13, 14) This proved to be a stumbling block for many Jews, since they insisted that circumcision and adherence to the Mosaic law were essential for gaining God’s approval. That is why the apostle Paul wrote: “Brothers, if I am still preaching circumcision, why am I still being persecuted? Then, indeed, the stumbling block of the torture stake has been abolished.” (Gal. 5:11) “All those who want to make a pleasing appearance in the flesh are the ones that try to compel you to get circumcised, only that they may not be persecuted for the torture stake of the Christ, Jesus. Never may it occur that I should boast, except in the torture stake of our Lord Jesus Christ, through whom the world has been impaled to me and I to the world.” (Gal. 6:12, 14) By confessing Jesus’ death on the torture stake as the sole basis for gaining salvation, Paul was persecuted by the Jews. As a consequence of this confession, the world was as something impaled, condemned or dead, to the apostle, whereas the world viewed him with hatred, as a criminal impaled on a stake.

Persons who embraced Christianity but afterward turned to an immoral way of life proved themselves to be “enemies of the torture stake of the Christ.” (Phil. 3:18, 19) Their actions demonstrated that they had no appreciation for the benefits resulting from Jesus’ death on the torture stake. They “trampled upon the Son of God” and ‘esteemed as of ordinary value the blood of the covenant by which they were sanctified.’—Heb. 10:29.

TOW

Coarse, short fibers of flax, jute or hemp that are separated therefrom and used in spinning. Tow will burn readily. When Delilah bound Samson with moist sinews, he easily tore them in two, “just as a twisted thread of tow is torn in two when it smells fire.” (Judg. 16:8, 9) Jehovah decreed that among his ancient people the wicked and their works would perish together, saying: “The vigorous man will certainly become tow, and the product of his activity a spark; and both of them will certainly go up in flames at the same time, with no one to do the extinguishing.”—Isa. 1:24, 31.

TOWER

The history of tower building goes back to the time shortly after the Flood when men on the plains of Shinar declared: “Come on! Let us build ourselves a city and also a tower with its top in the heavens.” (Gen. 11:2-4) That tower is thought to have been styled along the oblique pyramid lines of the religious ziggurats discovered in that part of the earth.—See BABEL.

Simple towers were built in vineyards as vantage points for watchmen in guarding the vines against thieves and animals.—Isa. 5:1, 2; Matt. 21:33; Mark 12:1.

For military defense, towers were built into the walls of cities, usually with more prominent ones at the corners and flanking the gates. (2 Chron. 26:9; 32:5; Ezek. 26:4, 9; Zeph. 1:16; 3:6) In some instances towers served as a chain of outposts along a frontier, or as places of refuge in isolated areas for shepherds and others.—2 Chron. 26:10; 27:4; see FORTIFICATIONS.

Often a tower inside the city served as a citadel. The towers of Shechem, Thebez and Penuel were such structures. (Judg. 8:9, 17; 9:46-54) Ruins of other city towers have also been found in Jericho, Beth-shan, Lachish, Megiddo, Mizpah and Samaria.

“Migdol,” meaning “tower” (Ezek. 29:10; 30:6), forms part of the name of certain places (Migdal-gad [“tower of good fortune”], Migdal-el [“tower of God”]).—Josh. 15:37; 19:38.

Siege towers on occasion were built by the attacking armies when assaulting fortified cities. These served as elevated firing positions for archers or throwers. Also, some assault towers contained battering rams and provided protection for those operating the rams.—Isa. 23:13.

JERUSALEM’S TOWERS

The Tower of the Bake Ovens was located on the NW side of the city near or at the Corner Gate. (Neh. 3:11; 12:38) Why it was so named is not certain, but quite possibly commercial bakers were present in that vicinity. It may have been one of the towers built by Uzziah, who reigned in Jerusalem from 829 to 777 B.C.E. (2 Chron. 26:9) Along the N wall of the city were two other important towers. Situated at the most northerly point of the wall was the Tower of Hananel. (Zech. 14:10) It too was restored and sanctified in Nehemiah’s day. (Neh. 3:1; 12:39; Jer. 31:38; see diagram on page 625.) Close by it and to the E near the Sheep Gate was the Tower of Meah. Why it was called Meah, meaning “hundred,” is not known.—Neh. 3:1; 12:39.

Along the E wall S of the temple area was the Protruding Tower, and still farther S somewhere in the vicinity of David’s palace, was the Tower of the King’s House near the Courtyard of the Guard. (Neh. 3:25-27) Some think this latter tower was the one referred to in The Song of Solomon as “the tower of David, built in courses of stone, upon which are hung a thousand shields, all the circular shields of the mighty men.” (Song of Sol. 4:4) This tower should not be confused with the more modern so-called “Tower of David,” which incorporates the tower of Phasael, partly destroyed by Titus in 70 C.E. This Phasael tower was one of the three built by Herod the Great for the protection of his new palace erected near the site of the ancient Corner Gate on the W side of the city.

The Tower in Siloam was probably in the vicinity of the pool by that name in the BE sector of Jerusalem. Jesus mentioned that this tower collapsed, killing eighteen men, an event that must have been fresh in the memory of his audience.—Luke 13:4; see ANTONIA, CASTLE OF.

FIGURATIVE USE

Those who look in faith and obedience to Jehovah have great security, as David sang: “You [Jehovah] have proved to be a refuge for me, a strong tower in the face of the enemy.” (Ps. 61:3) Those who recognize what his name stands for, and who trust in and faithfully represent that name, have nothing to fear, for: “The name of Jehovah is a strong tower. Into it the righteous runs and is given protection.”—Prov. 18:10; compare 1 Samuel 17:45-47.

TOWER OF BABEL

See BABEL.

TOWN

See CITY.

TRACHONITIS

(Trach·o·niʹtis) [rough, stony region].

That region which, together with Ituraea, was under the administration of Philip, the Roman district ruler during the ministries of John the Baptist and Jesus. (Luke 3:1) The northern limits of Trachonitis were some twenty-five miles (40 kilometers) SE of Damascus in the northeastern part of Bashan. In size, it embraced a pear-shaped area of about 350 square miles (906 square kilometers).

For the most part exposed lava deposits with their deep fissures and holes cover the central portion of this country, leaving little land suitable for the cultivation of more than vineyards. It is a wild, inhospitable and foreboding country, known today by the Arabic name el Leja (meaning “the Refuge”), for it affords a suitable hideout for fugitives from justice.

At one time the population of Trachonitis was much greater than at present, judging from the ruins of its ancient cities. The absence of wood in the construction of these cities indicates that even in ancient times the country was probably as devoid of timber as it is today. Sufficient rainfall and the presence of springs make sheep- and goat-raising possible.

Trachonitis is mentioned only once in the Bible, though Strabo and Josephus make several references to this region. From such secular sources it is learned that Roman Emperor Augustus included Trachonitis in the kingdom territory given to Herod the Great. Upon Herod’s death his son Philip received Trachonitis as part of his tetrarchy over which he ruled down to his death.

TRADITION

Information, doctrines or practices that have been handed down from parents to children or that have become the established way of thinking or acting. The Greek word pa·raʹdo·sis means, basically, “a giving over, giving up” and hence tradition in the sense of “a giving over which is done by word of mouth or in writing.” The word as used in the Christian Greek Scriptures is applied to traditions that were proper or acceptable aspects of true worship, as well as to those that were in error or were followed or viewed in a way that made them harmful and objectionable.

Over the centuries the Jews acquired many traditions. These included ways of dress and handling social matters such as weddings and burials. (John 2:1, 2; 19:40) Also, some aspects of Jewish worship in the first century C.E. were customary or traditional, like using wine in the Passover meal and celebrating the rededication of the temple. (Luke 22:14-18; John 10:22) Jesus and his apostles did not object to such, though they knew that those things were not required by the Law. When the synagogue became a common place of Jewish worship it was custom or tradition to worship there each sabbath. Luke says that Jesus also attended, “according to his custom.”—Luke 4:16.

DISAPPROVED TRADITIONS

The Jewish religious leaders, though, had added to the written Word many verbal traditions that they viewed as indispensable to true worship. Paul (Saul), as a Pharisee before his conversion to Christianity, was unusually zealous to follow the traditions of Judaism. These would, of course, include the unobjectionable ones and the bad ones. By following the “commands of men as doctrines,” he was led to be a persecutor of Christians. (Matt. 15:9) For instance, they ‘did not eat unless they washed their hands up to the elbow, holding fast the tradition of the men of former times.’ (Mark 7:3) Among those men this practice was not for hygienic purposes, but was a ceremonious ritual that supposedly had religious merit. (See WASHING OF HANDS.) Christ showed that they had no basis for criticizing his disciples for not following that and other unnecessary “commands of men.” (Matt. 15:1, 2, 7-11; Mark 7:4-8; Isa. 29:13) Furthermore, by their tradition regarding “corban” (a gift dedicated to God) the religious leaders had made God’s Word invalid, overstepping the commandment of God.—Ex. 20:12; 21:17; Matt. 15:3-6; Mark 7:9-15; see CORBAN.

Neither Jesus nor his disciples ever quoted oral Jewish tradition to support their teachings, but, rather, appealed to the written Word of God. (Matt. 4:4-10; Rom. 15:4; 2 Tim. 3:15-17) Once the Christian congregation was established, observance of the unscriptural Jewish traditions amounted to a “fruitless form of conduct” that Jewish persons had ‘received by tradition from their forefathers [Gr., pa·tro·pa·raʹdo·tos, meaning “delivered down from one’s fathers, ancestral”].’ (1 Pet. 1:18) Upon becoming Christians, those Jews abandoned such traditions. When some false teachers in Colossae urged taking up that form of worship, Paul warned against “the philosophy and empty deception according to the tradition of men.” Evidently he meant, especially, the traditions of Judaism.—Col. 2:8, 13-17.

CHRISTIAN TRADITIONS

Viewing tradition in the sense of information handed down orally or by example, the information that the apostle Paul received directly from Jesus could properly be passed on to the Christian congregations as acceptable Christian tradition. This was so, for example, regarding the celebration of the Lord’s Evening Meal. (1 Cor. 11:2, 23) The teachings and example set by the apostles constituted valid tradition. Thus, Paul, who had personally toiled with his hands so as not to be a financial burden on his brothers (Acts 18:3; 20:34; 1 Cor. 9:15; 1 Thess. 2:9), could urge the Thessalonian Christians “to withdraw from every brother walking disorderly and not according to the tradition [pa·raʹdo·sis]” they had received. One who would not work was plainly not following the fine example or tradition of the apostles.—2 Thess. 3:6-11.

The “traditions” that are necessary for worship of God that is clean and undefiled were in time included as part of the inspired Scriptures. Hence, the traditions or precepts that were transmitted by Jesus and the apostles and that were vital for life were not left in oral form to be distorted by the passage of