of a great crowd that no man could number, associates out of all nations and tribes and peoples and tongues who hail the enthroned King and his Lamb and receive God’s favor and protection.

SETTLER

A settler [Heb., toh·shavʹ, settler, sojourner] was an inhabitant of a land or country not his own. Evidently some of the settlers in Israel became proselytes; others were content to dwell with the Israelites and to obey the fundamental laws of the land, but did not become worshipers of Jehovah as did circumcised proselytes. The settler was distinguished from the “foreigner,” who was generally a transient and was only extended the hospitality that is usually accorded guests in the Orient.

The settler who was an uncircumcised dweller in the land did not eat of the passover or of anything holy. (Ex. 12:45; Lev. 22:10) He received benefits along with the alien residents and the poor during the sabbath year and the Jubilee year by being able to share in what the land produced. (Lev. 25:6, 12) He or his offspring could be purchased as slaves by the Israelites and passed on as a permanent inheritance without the right of repurchase or benefit of Jubilee release. (Lev. 25:45, 46) On the other hand, an Israelite might sell himself as a slave to a settler or to members of the settler’s family, maintaining the right of repurchase at any time, as well as release in his seventh year of servitude or at the Jubilee.—Lev. 25:47-52; Ex. 21:2; Deut. 15:12.

While only the natural Israelites had a hereditary possession in the land, Jehovah was the actual owner and could put them in or out of the land as it suited his purpose. Regarding the sale of land he said: “So the land should not be sold in perpetuity, because the land is mine. For you are alien residents and settlers from my standpoint.”—Lev. 25:23.

STRANGER

The considering of persons as strangers was done in matters pertaining to the Aaronic family and the tribe of Levi, and it affected both the natural Israelite and the alien resident, as well as all other persons. Priestly functions were committed by the Law to the family of Aaron (Ex. 28:1-3), and other temple matters were assigned to the tribe of Levi in general. (Num. 1:49, 50, 53) All other persons, including the natural Israelites of the twelve non-Levitical tribes, were likened to ‘strangers’ with respect to the Levitical tribe in certain affairs. (Ex. 29:33, NW ftn. [1953], “non-Aaronite, that is, a man not of the family of Aaron”; AV margin, “every one not a Levite”; Num. 3:38, NW ftn. [1953] “that is, a non-Levite”; AV, JB, “layman.” See also Leviticus 22:10; Numbers 3:10.) According to the context “stranger,” in most occurrences in the Pentateuch, refers to anyone not of the family of Aaron or not of the tribe of Levi, because priestly or ministerial privileges and duties were not assigned to him.

The stranger (non-Aaronite) could not eat of the installation sacrifice (Ex. 29:33), nor be anointed with holy anointing oil (Ex. 30:33), nor eat anything holy. (Lev. 22:10) A non-Aaronite stranger could not handle any priestly duties. (Num. 3:10; 16:40; 18:7) A non-Levite stranger, that is, even those of any of the other twelve tribes, could not have anything to do with coming near the tabernacle to set it up or for any purpose other than when he came to offer sacrifices or to approach the priests at the gate of the tent of meeting. (Lev. 4:24, 27-29) The daughter of a priest who married a non-Aaronite stranger could not eat of the contribution of the holy things, nor could her “stranger” husband.—Lev. 22:12, 13.

Another sense in which the word stranger was used was in connection with unlawful conduct or hostile attitude, those who turned aside from what was in harmony with the Law. Thus the prostitute is referred to as a “strange woman.” (Prov. 2:16; 5:17; 7:5) Israel was led away into idolatry by following the ways of the “stranger.”—Jer. 2:25; 3:13.

Strangers in the sense of persons with whom one is unacquainted, or foreigners, are also referred to in the Hebrew Scriptures.—1 Ki. 3:18; Job 19:15.

Christian principles regarding strangers

In the Christian Greek Scriptures love toward the stranger is strongly emphasized as a quality the Christian must exercise. The apostle Paul says: “Do not forget hospitality [Gr., phi·lo·xe·niʹas, love of strangers], for through it some, unknown to themselves, entertained angels.” (Heb. 13:2) Jesus showed that those extending hospitality to his brothers, strangers or unacquainted though they may be at the time, he counts as extending it toward him. (Matt 25:34-46) The apostle John wrote commending Gaius for his good works toward Christian men, strangers to Gaius, sent to visit the congregation of which Gaius was a member, and condemns Diotrephes, who showed them no respect.—3 John 5-10; 1 Tim. 5:10.

Christians are termed “aliens” and “temporary residents” in the sense that they are no part of this world. (John 15:19; 1 Pet. 1:1) They are aliens in that they do not conform to the practices of the world hostile to God. (1 Pet. 2:11) Those of the Gentile nations, once “strangers to the covenants of the promise,” without hope and “without God in the world,” are, through Christ, “no longer strangers and alien residents,” but “fellow citizens of the holy ones and are members of the household of God.” (Eph. 2:11, 12, 19) The “other sheep” that Jesus said he would gather into the “one flock” likewise take a position separate from the world, with favor of God and hope of life.—John 10:16; Matt. 25:33, 34, 46; compare Revelation 7:9-17.

One who attempts to gather religious followers to himself is termed by Christ as a thief and a stranger, one dangerous to Christ’s “sheep,” and is considered a false shepherd. Jesus’ true “sheep” will give no recognition to a false shepherd’s voice, just as the ancient Israelites kept themselves separate from the foreigner who advocated strange gods.—John 10:5; see FOREIGNER.

ALKALI

See LAUNDRYMAN.

ALLAMMELECH

(Al·lamʹme·lech) [the king’s massive tree].

A town in the territory allotted the tribe of Asher (Josh. 19:26), N of the torrent valley of Kishon. The exact site is unknown, but was probably in the S part of the Plain of Acco, perhaps on the Wadi el-Melek, which empties into the river Kishon.

ALLIANCE

A uniting together of different parties or families or individuals or states, whether by marriage, mutual agreement or legal compact. An alliance usually implies resultant mutal benefit or the joint pursuit of a desired purpose.

Abraham appears to have entered into an early alliance with Mamre, Eshcol and Aner of the Amorites. The nature of the confederacy is not stated, but they joined him in his march to rescue his nephew Lot from invading kings. (Gen. 14:13-24) Abraham was then dwelling as an alien in land controlled by petty kingdoms and, in this case, some formal declaration in the form of a covenant may have been required of him as a prerequisite for peaceful residence in their midst. However, Abraham avoided unnecessarily obligating himself to such political rulers, as is manifest by his statement to the king of Sodom at Genesis 14:21-24. Later at Gerar, Philistine king Abimelech reminded Abraham of his alien status in which he resided in the land of Philistia by Abimelech’s consent and requested of him the swearing of an oath guaranteeing faithful conduct. Abraham acquiesced and later, following a water-rights dispute, made a covenant with Abimelech.—20:1, 15; 21:22-34.

Abraham’s son, Isaac, also came to dwell in Gerar, although he was later asked by Abimelech to move out of the immediate vicinity, and he willingly complied. Disputes over water rights again occurred, but thereafter Abimelech and his chief associates approached Isaac requesting an oath of obligation and a covenant, doubtless as a renewal of that made with Abraham. Sworn statements were made by both parties guaranteeing reciprocal peaceful conduct. (Gen. 26:16, 19-22, 26-31; compare Genesis 31:48-53.) The apostle Paul states that these early patriarchs publicly declared themselves strangers and temporary residents tenting in the land, awaiting a city having real foundations, whose builder and creator is God.—Heb. 11:8-10, 13-16.

A different situation prevailed with the entry of the nation of Israel into Canaan, the Land of Promise. The Sovereign God had given Israel full right to the land in fulfillment of his promise to their forefathers. They were, therefore, not entering as alien residents, and Jehovah prohibited their making alliances with the pagan nations in the land. (Ex. 23:31-33; 34:11-16) They were to be subject only to God’s laws and statutes, not those of the nations due for eviction. (Lev. 18:3, 4; 20:22-24) They were particularly warned against forming marriage alliances with such nations. Such alliances would intimately involve them, not only with pagan wives, but with pagan relatives and their false religious practices and customs, and this would result in apostasy and a snare.—Deut. 7:2-4; Ex. 34:16; Josh. 23:12, 13.

MARRIAGE ALLIANCES

Much earlier Abraham had insisted that Isaac’s wife not be taken from among the Canaanites. (Gen. 24:3, 4) Isaac gave similar instruction to Jacob. (Gen. 28:1) At the time of Dinah’s violation by Shechem the Hivite, the family of Jacob was urged by Hamor to enter into marriage alliances with that tribe. Though Jacob’s sons did not follow through with their apparent acceptance, they did take the Hivite women and children captive after avenging Dinah’s honor. (Gen. 34:1-11, 29) Judah later married a Canaanite woman (Gen. 38:2), and Joseph’s wife was an Egyptian. (Gen. 41:50) Moses married Zipporah, a Midianite (evidently called a “Cushite” at Numbers 12:1). These marriages, however, were contracted before the giving of the Law and hence could not be considered a violation of its requirements.—Ex. 2:16, 21; Num. 12:1.

In the battle with Midian, the Israelites preserved alive only virgins from among the women and girls. (Num. 31:3, 18, 35) The Law allowed for the taking of a wife from among such parentless female war captives. (Deut. 21:10-14) Within the Promised Land itself God’s warning concerning marriage alliances with pagans was often ignored, with resulting problems and apostasy.—Judg. 3:5, 6.

Marriage alliances were sometimes arranged with a view toward achieving certain ends, as when David was invited by King Saul to form a marriage alliance with him by taking his daughter Michal as wife. (1 Sam. 18:21-27) One of the six wives who later bore David sons at Hebron was the daughter of the king of Geshur (2 Sam. 3:3), and some consider this as a marriage alliance entered into by David with a view to weakening rival Ish-bosheth’s position, since Geshur was a petty kingdom lying on the other side of Ish-bosheth’s capital, Mahanaim. Early in his reign King Solomon formed a marriage alliance with Pharaoh, taking his daughter as wife. (1 Ki. 3:1; 9:16) This marriage, along with others to Moabite, Ammonite, Edomite, Sidonian and Hittite women, eventually caused Solomon to succumb to gross idolatry. (1 Ki. 11:1-6) King Ahab’s marriage alliance with the king of Sidon by marrying his daughter Jezebel brought similar disastrous results for the northern kingdom of Israel. (1 Ki. 16:31-33) King Jehoshaphat thereafter formed an unwise marriage alliance with the idolatrous house of Ahab, with lasting bad consequences for the kingdom of Judah.—2 Chron. 18:1; 21:4-6; 22:2-4.

Following the exile, Ezra was shocked to find that even the priests and Levites had made marriage alliances with the Canaanites and others, a situation that was promptly eliminated. (Ezra 9:1-3, 12-14; 10:1-5, 10-14, 44) Yet, in Nehemiah’s time Tobiah the Ammonite again used marriage alliances to develop strong relations with the priestly family in Jerusalem and fostered a strong faction of allies among the nobles of Judah, to the point that, in defiance of the Law (Deut. 23:3), priest Eliashib made a dining hall in the temple courtyard for this Ammonite. Nehemiah, however, indignantly threw all Tobiah’s furniture outside.—Neh. 6:18; 13:4-9, 25-27; see MARRIAGE.

COVENANTS

Other alliances aside from marriage alliances were made and these were generally in the form of a covenant. The covenant made with the Gibeonites was, of course, entered into by Israel because of a deception. (Josh. 9:3-15) Nevertheless, once made, the covenant was thereafter respected so that Israel was willing to fight to protect the Gibeonites. (Josh. 9:19-21; 10:6, 7) A personal alliance by covenant existed between Jonathan and David (1 Sam. 18:3; 20:11-17), a relationship that Saul condemned as a conspiracy. (1 Sam. 22:8) King Hiram of Tyre showed friendship toward David when he succeeded Saul as king, and Hiram became a “lover of David.” (2 Sam. 5:11; 1 Ki. 5:1) Friendly relations continued, and on Solomon’s accession to the throne a league was made with King Hiram that contracted for the supply of much of the materials needed for the temple construction. (1 Ki. 5:2-18) Under this contract thousands of Israelite laborers were allowed entry into Lebanon and its forests. Hiram even addressed Solomon as “my brother.” (1 Ki. 9:13) Tyre furnished seamen for Solomon’s fleet of ships operating out of Ezion-geber. (1 Ki 9:26, 27) When the kingdom of Tyre later turned against Israel and handed over Israelite exiles to Edom, it was accused of having violated “the covenant of brothers.”—Amos 1:9.

UNWISE ALLIANCES WITH OTHER NATIONS

Though God’s prophets gave strong warnings against the forming of alliances with other nations, in times of danger or under the pressure of ambition the kings of Judah and Israel frequently ignored such warnings. (Isa. 30:2-7; Jer. 2:16-19, 36, 37; Hos. 5:13; 8:8-10; 12:1) The end results were never good. King Asa of Judah used the royal treasures to buy King Ben-hadad of Syria out of a covenant with King Baasha of Israel. (1 Ki. 15:18-20) As a result of this ‘leaning on Syria’ rather than on Jehovah, Asa was rebuked by the prophet Hanani with the words: “You have acted foolishly respecting this, for from now on there will exist wars against you.” (2 Chron. 16:7-9) King Ahab of Israel later made a covenant with defeated Ben-hadad and received similar condemnation from a prophet of God. (1 Ki. 20:34, 42) Jehoshaphat allied himself with Ahab in an unsuccessful attack against Syria and was thereafter asked by the prophet Jehu: “Is it to the wicked that help is to be given, and is it for those hating Jehovah that you should have love? And for this there is indignation against you from the person of Jehovah.” (2 Chron. 18:2, 3; 19:2) Later Jehoshaphat made a commercial shipbuilding partnership with wicked King Ahaziah of Israel, but prophetic condemnation was fulfilled when the ships were wrecked. (2 Chron. 20:35-37) Obeying divine counsel, Amaziah of Judah wisely decided against the use of mercenary troops from Israel though it meant a loss of one hundred talents of silver (about $142,359) paid them as a fee.—2 Chron. 25:6-10.

As Assyria began to rise as a dominant world power, in the eighth century B.C.E., its menacing shadow drove lesser kingdoms into many alliances and conspiracies. (Compare Isaiah 8:9-13.) A buildup of new weapons of warfare among the nations also caused increased fear. (Compare 2 Chronicles 26:14, 15.) Menahem of Israel bribed the attacking Pul (Tiglath-pileser III) of Assyria. (2 Ki. 15:17-20) Rezin of Syria and Pekah of Israel formed a conspiratorial alliance against Ahaz of Judah, who, in turn, used the royal treasures and those from the temple to buy protection from Assyrian Tiglath-pileser III, resulting in the fall of Syrian Damascus. (2 Ki. 16:5-9; 2 Chron. 28:16) Hoshea of Israel made a conspiratorial alliance with King So of Egypt in the false hope of throwing off the Assyrian yoke imposed by Shalmaneser, with the consequent fall of Israel in 740 B.C.E. (2 Ki. 17:3-6) Faithful Hezekiah of Judah, however, though falsely accused of trusting in Egypt, relied solely on Jehovah and was saved from the Assyrian Sennacherib’s attack.—2 Ki. 18:19-22, 32-35; 19:14-19, 28, 32-36; compare Isaiah 31:1-3.

In its closing years, the kingdom of Judah fluctuated between Egypt and Babylon, “prostituting” itself with both powers. (Ezek. 16:26-29; 23:14) It came under the dominance of Egypt during Jehoiakim’s reign (2 Ki. 23:34), but was soon made subject to Babylon. (2 Ki. 24:1, 7, 12-17) The last king, Zedekiah, made a futile attempt to free Judah from Babylon by a vain alliance with Egypt. Destruction of Jerusalem resulted. (2 Ki. 24:20; Ezek. 17:1-15) They had failed to accept Isaiah’s inspired advice: “By coming back and resting you people will be saved. Your mightiness will prove to be simply in keeping undisturbed and in trustfulness.”—Isa. 30:15-17.

During the Maccabean period many treaties and alliances were made with the Syrians and the Romans for political advantage, but freedom from bondage did not result for Israel. In a later period the religious Sadducees were especially prominent in favoring political collaboration as a means toward ultimate national independence. Neither they nor the Pharisees accepted the Kingdom message proclaimed by Christ Jesus but allied themselves with Rome declaring: “We have no king but Caesar.” (John 19:12-15) Their religio-political alliance with Rome, however, ended in the disastrous destruction of Jerusalem in 70 C.E.—Luke 19:41-44; 21:20-24.

Political and religious alliances are indicated in the symbolisms of Revelation 17:1, 2, 10-18; 18:3. (Compare James 4:1-4.) Thus, throughout the Scriptural record the principle stated by Paul is stressed: “Do not become unevenly yoked with unbelievers. For what sharing do righteousness and lawlessness have? Or what fellowship does light have with darkness? . . . get out from among them, and separate yourselves.”—2 Cor. 6:14-18.

ALLON

(Alʹlon) [big tree].

A Simeonite, descendant of Shemaiah.—1 Chron. 4:37.

The Hebrew word is also used to refer to certain places, as Allon-bacuth, meaning “big tree of weeping,” at Genesis 35:8, and the “big tree” in Zaanannim.—Josh. 19:33; Judg. 4:11; see BIG TREES, MASSIVE TREES.

ALLON-BACUTH

(Alʹlon-bacʹuth) [big tree of weeping].

A big tree at the “foot” of Bethel, below the hill occupied by the city, named thus because under it Jacob buried “Deborah the nursing woman of Rebekah.”—Gen. 35:8; see BIG TREES, MASSIVE TREES.

ALMIGHTY GOD

The word “Almighty” is translated from the Hebrew word Shad·dayʹ and the Greek word Pan·to·kraʹtor. Both words evidently convey the idea of strength or power.

ALMIGHTINESS IN HEBREW SCRIPTURES

In the Hebrew text Shad·dayʹ is used seven times along with ʼEl (God), forming the title “God Almighty.” (Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 43:14; 48:3; Ex. 6:3; Ezek. 10:5) In the other forty-one occurrences it stands alone and is translated “the Almighty” or “the Almighty One.” Similar to ʼAdho·nayʹ (Lord) and ʼElo·himʹ (God), Shad·dayʹ is in the plural to denote the plural of excellence.—Gen. 49:25; Num. 24:4; Ps. 68:14.

Root meaning

The exact derivation of the word Shad·dayʹ is a matter of discussion. The translators of the Septuagint used several Greek words in translating it, but did employ the word Pan·to·kraʹtor (all powerful) sixteen times for Shad·dayʹ in translating the book of Job. In a few cases they rendered it by a Greek term (hi·ka·nosʹ) meaning “sufficient” or “fit” (Ruth 1:20, 21; Job 21:15; 31:2; 40:2), and several later Greek translators followed this interpretation, thereby presenting Shad·dayʹ as the “Sufficient (Fit) One.”

The view of some modern critics is expressed in the comment on Genesis 17:1 in the Catholic translation known as The Jerusalem Bible (footnote b), which states: “The usual translation ‘Almighty God’ is inaccurate; ‘Mou[n]tain God’ is the probable meaning.” Such extreme view, however, is based on an imagined linkage of Shad·dayʹ with the Akkadian term shadu (mountain). Unger’s Bible Dictionary (p. 1000) comments: “This view, however, is unacceptable and Shaddai is best taken from the root shadad [sha·dhadhʹ], ‘to be strong or powerful,’ as in Arabic.”—See also The Analytical Hebrew and Chaldee Lexicon, by Benjamin Davidson, p. 702.

Sha·dhadhʹ in the Bible text commonly implies violent power, as used in devastating or despoiling. (Compare Psalm 17:9; Proverbs 11:3.) Isaiah 13:6 states: “Howl, you people, for the day of Jehovah is near! As a despoiling [shodh] from the Almighty [Shad·dayʹ] it will come.” While the idea of violent action is basic in the Biblical use of this root word, some authorities suggest that its original sense or primary meaning was simply “to be strong” or “to act strongly.” The Jewish Encyclopedia (1909 ed.; Vol. IX, p. 162) states: “It is possible, however, that the original significance was that of ‘overmastering’ or ‘overpowering strength,’ and that this meaning persists in the divine [title].”

Irresistible power related to divine purpose

Jehovah used this title (ʼEl Shad·dayʹ) when making his promise to Abraham concerning the birth of Isaac, a promise requiring great faith on Abraham’s part in God’s power to carry out his promise. It was thereafter used with reference to Isaac and Jacob as heirs of the Abrahamic covenant.—Gen. 17:1; 28:3; 35:11; 48:3.

In harmony with this, Jehovah could later say to Moses: “I used to appear to Abraham, Isaac and Jacob as God Almighty [ʼEl Shad·dayʹ], but as respects my name Jehovah I did not make myself known to them.” (Ex. 6:3) This could not mean that the name Jehovah was unknown to these patriarchs since it was frequently used by them, as well as by others before them. (Gen. 4:1, 26; 14:22; 27:27; 28:16) In fact, in the book of Genesis, which relates the lives of the patriarchs, the word “Almighty” occurs only six times, whereas the personal name Jehovah occurs 171 times in the primitive Hebrew Bible text. The names of some of the offspring of Jacob’s sons even included the name of Jehovah, as Jahleel and Jahzeel. (Gen. 46:14, 24) Yet, while these patriarchs had come to appreciate by personal experience God’s right and qualifications for the title of “the Almighty One,” they had not had opportunity to appreciate the full meaning and implications of his personal name, Jehovah. In this regard, after pointing out that ʼEl Shad·dayʹ is not a name, Douglas’ New Bible Dictionary comments (p. 479): “The former revelation, to the Patriarchs, concerned promises belonging to a distant future; it supposed that they should be assured that He, Yahweh, was such a God (ʼel) as was competent (sadday) to fulfill them. The revelation at the bush was greater and more intimate, God’s power and immediate and continuing presence