within the area of freedom decreed by God, an area that was by no means cramped and that allowed for the greatest enjoyment of human life. Therefore, to violate the boundaries of the prohibited area by eating of the “tree of the knowledge of good and bad” would be an invasion of or a revolt against God’s domain and authority.—See SOVEREIGNTY.

Trees were also used to symbolize individuals, rulers and kingdoms, as in the prophecy likening the fall of Pharaoh and his crowd to Assyria’s fall in Ezekiel chapter 31, and in Daniel’s prophecy regarding the mighty tree representing dominion “in the kingdom of mankind.” (Dan. 4:10-26) The righteous man is likened to a tree planted by streams of water (Ps. 1:3), whose foliage is luxuriant and whose fruit continues to grow even in drought.—Jer. 17:8.

The promise that the days of God’s restored people will be like those of a tree (Isa. 65:22) is made more meaningful by the fact that some trees of Palestine live for centuries, even up to a thousand years or more. In Ezekiel’s vision a stream flowing from the visionary temple was lined with fruitful trees of healing foliage, and a similar vision is presented in the book of Revelation. (Ezek. 47:7, 12; Rev. 22:2, 14) The expression “tree of life” is used with regard to true wisdom, to the fruitage of the righteous, to the realization of a thing desired, to calmness of the tongue, and is also associated with the crown of life. (Prov. 3:18; 11:30; 13:12; 15:4; Rev. 2:7, 10) Trees are mentioned in association with the fruitful, peaceful and joyful conditions resulting from Jehovah’s kingship and the restoration of his people.—1 Chron. 16:33; Ps. 96:12; 148:9; Isa. 55:12; Ezek. 34:27; 36:30.

Jesus used trees in some of his illustrations stressing the need for fruitfulness in true righteousness, as John the Baptist had done before him. (Matt. 3:10; 7:15-20) Since fruit trees were taxed in Palestine in that time, an unproductive tree (as good as dead) was an undesirable burden to the owner and, hence, a tree to be chopped down and destroyed. (Luke 13:6-9) At Jude 12 immoral persons who infiltrate the Christian congregation are likened to fruitless trees in autumn time that have died twice. Their being described as ‘twice dead’ may be an emphatic way of expressing that they are completely dead. Or, it could signify that they are dead from two viewpoints. They are (1) barren or fruitless and (2) are literally dead, possessing no vitality.

The Hebrew word for tree is also used with regard to the stake or post on which a body was hung. (Gen. 40:19; Deut. 21:22, 23; Josh. 8:29; Esther 2:23) In applying Deuteronomy 21:23, the apostle Paul used the Greek word xyʹlon.—Gal. 3:13; see TORTURE STAKE; individual trees by name.

TRIAL

See LEGAL CASE.

TRIBE

A group of people, comprising a number of families or clans, who are united by race or custom under the same leaders.

The two Hebrew words often rendered “tribe” (mat·theʹ and sheʹvet) both mean rod or staff. (Ex. 7:12; Prov. 13:24) Apparently these words came to signify “tribe” in the sense of a group of persons led by a chief or chieftains carrying a scepter or staff. (Compare Numbers 17:2-6.) In most cases where the context shows that either word has the thought of “tribe,” it is used in regard to one of the tribes of Israel, such as the “tribe [mat·theʹ] of Gad” or the “tribe [sheʹvet] of the Levites.” (Josh. 13:24, 33) However, the ‘tribe that God redeemed as his inheritance,’ mentioned at Psalm 74:2, evidently refers to the entire nation of Israel, speaking of it as a “tribe” or people distinct from other nations and peoples. And the term “tribe” at Numbers 4:18 seems to be used in a more restrictive sense, as applied to the Kohathites who were a subdivision of the tribe of Levi. The Egyptian “tribes” of Isaiah 19:13 must apply to certain categories of people, whether according to region, caste or something else.

The Greek term phy·leʹ signifies “a company of people united by kinship or habitation, a clan, tribe.” The word is often used in the Christian Greek Scriptures in regard to the tribes of the nation of Israel. (Acts 13:21; Rom. 11:1; Phil. 3:5; Heb. 7:13, 14; Rev. 5:5) In expressions like “out of every tribe and tongue and people and nation,” “tribe” seems to mean a group of people related by common descent. (Rev. 5:9) Such expressions, then, are exhaustive, referring to all people, whether viewed according to tribes of interrelated individuals, or as being part of a language group, a large mass or segment of mankind or a political division. (Rev. 7:9; 11:9; 13:7; 14:6) Also, phy·leʹ appears in the expression “all the tribes of the earth” at Revelation 1:7, which evidently means all people on earth, for the verse also says “every eye will see him.”—Compare Matthew 24:30.

TRIBES OF ISRAEL

The tribal arrangement in Israel was based on descent from the twelve sons of Jacob. (Gen. 29:32–30:24; 35:16-18) These “twelve family heads [Gr., doʹde·ka pa·tri·arʹkhas]” produced the “twelve tribes of Israel.” (Gen. 49:1-28; Acts 7:8) However, Jacob blessed Joseph’s two sons, Manasseh the older and Ephraim the younger, and said: “Ephraim and Manasseh will become mine like [his actual sons] Reuben and Simeon.” (Gen. 48:5, 13-20) When the various tribes received their land inheritance in the Promised Land (Josh. chaps. 13-19), there was no “tribe of Joseph.” Instead, “the sons of Joseph,” Manasseh and Ephraim, were counted as distinct tribes in Israel. As Jehovah had arranged, though, this did not increase the tribes of Israel receiving an inheritance to thirteen, because the Levites got no land inheritance. Jehovah had chosen the “tribe of Levi” (Num. 1:49) in place of the firstborn of the other tribes and they became the priestly tribe. (Ex. 13:1, 2; Num. 3:6-13, 41; Deut. 10:8, 9; 18:1; see LEVITES.) Consequently, there were twelve non-Levite tribes in Israel.—Josh. 3:12, 13; Judg. 19:29; 1 Ki. 11:30-32; Acts 26:7.

When Moses blessed the tribes (Deut. 33:6-24), Simeon was not mentioned by name, perhaps because the tribe was greatly reduced in size and its land portion was to be enclosed in the territory of Judah. In Ezekiel’s vision of the holy contribution and the twelve tribes, the tribes listed are the same as those who received a land inheritance as given in the book of Joshua. (Ezek. 48:1-8, 23-28) The tribe of Levi was located within the “holy contribution” in Ezekiel’s vision.—Ezek. 48:9-14, 22.

Tribal structure

Much of the organization of the Israelites revolved around the tribal structure. Both their order of marching and encampment in the wilderness were according to tribes. (Num. 2:1-31; 10:5, 6, 13-28) The land inheritance was apportioned on the basis of tribes, and special laws were given so that the land would not circulate from tribe to tribe.—Num. 36:7-9; Josh. 19:51.

The dividing up of the nation according to family heads was further carried out within each tribe. Though the tribe was the basic and most important division of the nation, each tribe was subdivided into large “families” (with “family” used in a broad sense) based on descent from paternal heads. (Num. 3:20, 24; 34:14) Within each “family” there were many individual households. This arrangement patterned after the tribal structure is well illustrated in Joshua 7:16-18 and 1 Samuel 9:21; 10:20, 21.

TRIBES OF SPIRITUAL ISRAEL

Revelation 7:4-8 divides the 144,000 members of spiritual Israel into twelve ‘tribes’ of twelve thousand each. (See ISRAEL OF GOD.) The list differs slightly from the lists of Jacob’s sons (including Levi) who were the tribal heads of natural Israel. (Gen. 49:28) The following may be the reason for the difference:

Jacob’s firstborn son Reuben lost his right as firstborn by his misconduct. (Gen. 49:3, 4; 1 Chron. 5:1, 2) Joseph (the firstborn son of Jacob through his second, but favorite, wife Rachel) gained the privileges of firstborn son, including the right to have two parts or portions in Israel. (Gen. 48:21, 22) Joseph’s younger son Ephraim became more prominent in Israel than did Manasseh (Gen. 48:19, 20), and so in the Revelation list “Joseph” evidently stands for Ephraim. And Manasseh represents Joseph’s second portion in spiritual Israel. The tribe of Levi being listed, apparently no tribe of Dan is included in Revelation 7:4-8 in order to make way for Joseph’s second portion as represented by Manasseh. The inclusion of Levi would also serve to show that there is no special priestly tribe in spiritual Israel, the entire spiritual nation being a “royal priesthood.”—1 Pet. 2:9.

“JUDGING THE TWELVE TRIBES OF ISRAEL”

Jesus told the apostles that in “the re-creation” they would “sit upon twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel.” (Matt. 19:28) And he expressed a similar thought when he made a covenant with his faithful apostles for a kingdom. (Luke 22:28-30) It is not reasonable that Jesus meant that they would judge the twelve tribes of spiritual Israel later mentioned in Revelation, for the apostles were to be part of that group. (Eph. 2:19-22; Rev. 3:21) Those “called to be holy ones” are said to judge, not themselves, but “the world.” (1 Cor. 1:1, 2; 6:2) Those reigning with Christ form a kingdom of priests. (1 Pet. 2:9; Rev. 5:10) Consequently, the “twelve tribes of Israel” mentioned at Matthew 19:28 and Luke 22:30 evidently refer to “the world” of mankind outside that royal priestly class and whom those sitting on heavenly thrones will judge.—Rev. 20:4.

TRIBULATION

The Greek word thliʹpsis, usually rendered “tribulation,” basically means distress, affliction or suffering resulting from the pressures of circumstances. It is used with reference to the affliction associated with childbirth (John 16:21), persecution (Matt. 24:9; Acts 11:19; 20:23; 2 Cor. 1:8; Heb. 10:33; Rev. 1:9), imprisonment (Rev. 2:10), poverty and other adversities common to orphans and widows (Jas. 1:27), famine (Acts 7:11), and punishment for wrongdoing. (Rom. 2:9; Rev. 2:22) The “tribulation” mentioned at 2 Corinthians 2:4 apparently refers to the distress felt by the apostle Paul because of the wrong conduct of the Christians at Corinth and on account of his having to correct them with severity.

MARRIAGE BRINGS TRIBULATION IN THE FLESH

When recommending singleness as the better course, the apostle Paul observed: “But even if you did marry, you would commit no sin. . . . However, those who do will have tribulation in their flesh.” (1 Cor. 7:28) Marriage is attended by certain anxieties and cares for husband, wife and children. (1 Cor. 7:32-35) Sickness can bring burdens and stresses on the family. As to Christians, persecution may arise. Families may be driven from their homes. Fathers may find it hard to provide life’s necessities for their households. Parents or children may be separated by imprisonment, suffer torture at the hands of persecutors or even lose their lives.

FAITHFUL ENDURANCE UNDER TRIBULATION

Tribulation in the form of persecution can have a weakening effect upon the faith of an individual. Christ Jesus, in his illustration of the sower, indicated that certain persons would actually be stumbled on account of tribulation or persecution. (Matt. 13:21; Mark 4:17) Being aware of this danger, the apostle Paul was very much concerned about the newly formed congregation at Thessalonica. Those associated with that congregation had embraced Christianity under much tribulation (1 Thess. 1:6; compare Acts 17:1, 5-10) and continued to experience such. The apostle therefore sent Timothy to strengthen and comfort them, “that no one might be swayed by these tribulations.” (1 Thess. 3:1-3, 5) When Timothy brought back news that the Thessalonians had remained firm in the faith, Paul was greatly comforted. (1 Thess. 3:6, 7) Doubtless the apostle’s efforts in preparing them to expect tribulation also helped the Thessalonians to continue to be faithful servants of God.—1 Thess. 3:4; compare John 16:33; Acts 14:22.

Although tribulation is unpleasant, the Christian can exult while enduring it, since he knows that faithfulness is approved by God and will ultimately lead to the realization of his grand hope. (Rom. 5:3-5; 12:12) The tribulation itself is but momentary and light in comparison with the everlasting glory to be received for remaining faithful. (2 Cor. 4:17, 18) The Christian can also rest assured that God’s loyal love will never waver, whatever tribulation may come upon the faithful believer.—Rom. 8:35-39.

In writing to the Corinthians, the apostle Paul pointed to yet other factors that would help the Christian to endure tribulation. He stated: “Blessed be the God . . . of all comfort, who comforts us in all our tribulation, that we may be able to comfort those in any sort of tribulation through the comfort with which we ourselves are being comforted by God. . . . Now whether we are in tribulation, it is for your comfort and salvation; or whether we are being comforted, it is for your comfort that operates to make you endure the same sufferings that we also suffer.” (2 Cor. 1:3-6) The precious promises of God, the help of his holy spirit and his answering the prayers of those experiencing tribulation are a source of comfort to Christians. On the basis of their own experience, they can encourage and comfort still others, their example of faithfulness and expressions of conviction inspiring such ones likewise to remain faithful.

Paul himself appreciated the comfort given to him by fellow believers as he endured tribulations. He commended the Philippian Christians for this: “You acted well in becoming sharers with me in my tribulation.” (Phil. 4:14) Being genuinely interested in Paul, imprisoned at Rome, they assisted him to bear his tribulation by helping him materially.—Phil. 4:15-20.

There are times, however, when certain persons become fearful on account of the tribulation experienced by others. With this in mind, Paul encouraged the Ephesian Christians: “I ask you not to give up on account of these tribulations of mine in your behalf, for these mean glory for you.” (Eph. 3:13) The persecutions or tribulations experienced by Paul resulted from his ministering to the Ephesians and others. For this reason he could speak of them as tribulations ‘in their behalf.’ His faithful endurance under such tribulations meant “glory” for the Ephesian Christians, since it demonstrated that what they had as Christians (including God’s sure promises and their precious relationship with Jehovah God and his Son Christ Jesus) was worth enduring for. (Compare Colossians 1:24.) Had Paul, as an apostle, given up, this would have meant disgrace for the congregation. Others could have been stumbled.—Compare 2 Corinthians 6:3, 4.

THE “GREAT TRIBULATION”

When answering the question of his disciples concerning the sign of his presence and the conclusion of the system of things, Jesus mentioned a “great tribulation such as has not occurred since the world’s