Illustrating this need for caution and also manifesting again that an objective approach to the problems existing in the deciphering of the ancient inscriptions is often not as prominent as one might think, the book The Secret of the Hittites by C. W. Ceram contains the following information concerning a prominent Assyriologist who worked at decoding the “Hittite” language (pp. 106-109): “His work is absolutely phenomenal—a brilliant intermingling of wild blunders with remarkable perceptions, . . . Some of his errors were supported by arguments so cogent that decades of study were necessary to overcome them. His ingenious reasoning was backed by such a wealth of philological learning that winnowing the chaff from the wheat was no easy affair.” The writer then describes the strong obstinacy of this scholar about any modification of his findings; after many years he finally did agree to make some changes—only to change the very readings that later proved to be the correct ones! In relating the violent dispute, fraught with personal recriminations, that arose between this scholar and another decipherer of the “Hittite” cuneiform, the author states: “Yet the very fanaticism which brings on such quarrels is a necessary motive force if scholars are to make discoveries.” Hence, although time and study have eliminated many errors in the understanding of ancient inscriptions, we do well to realize that further investigation may likely bring additional corrections.

The preeminence of the Bible as the source of reliable knowledge, truthful information and sure guidance is enhanced by these facts. As a body of written documents it gives us the clearest picture of man’s past and it has reached us, not by excavation, but through its preservation by its Author, Jehovah God. It is “alive and exerts power” (Heb. 4:12) and is the “word of the living and enduring God.” “All flesh is like grass, and all its glory is like a blossom of grass; the grass becomes withered, and the flower falls off, but the saying of Jehovah endures forever.”—1 Pet. 1:23-25.

ARCHANGEL

(archʹan·gel).

The prefix arch, meaning “chief” or “principal,” would seem to imply that there is only one archangel, the chief or head of the angelic host; in the Scriptures, “archangel” is never found in the plural. First Thessalonians 4:16, in speaking of the preeminence of the archangel and the authority of his office, does so in reference to the resurrected Lord Jesus Christ: “The Lord himself will descend from heaven with a commanding call, with an archangel’s voice and with God’s trumpet, and those who are dead in union with Christ will rise first.” It is, therefore, not without significance that the only name directly associated with the word archangel is Michael.—Jude 9; see MICHAEL.

ARCHELAUS

(Ar·che·laʹus) [ruler of the people].

Ruler of Judea; son of Herod the Great by his fourth wife, Malthace. Archelaus became king while young Jesus was down in Egypt with Joseph and Mary. Rather than face his tyrannical rule in Judea on their return, Joseph settled his family outside Archelaus’ jurisdiction, up in Nazareth of Galilee.—Matt. 2:22, 23.

Archelaus’ father Herod the Great willed to him the rulership of Judea, Samaria and Idumaea, a share of the kingdom twice that given to each of the other two sons, and which included the important cities of Jerusalem, Samaria, Joppa and Caesarea. After Herod’s death, Archelaus endeavored to make his rulership more secure by appearing before Augustus in Rome; in spite of opposers to his claim, including his brother and a delegation of Jews, Archelaus was allowed to retain his power, though Augustus made him, not a king, but an “ethnarch,” a tributary prince ranking higher than a tetrarch. Matthew, however, is not wrong in referring to him as a “king,” for the local army, including Herod’s mercenaries, had previously proclaimed him such.

Archelaus was a cruel ruler and very unpopular with the Jews. In quelling a riot, he once had 3,000 of them ruthlessly slain in the temple grounds; he twice deposed the high priest; his divorce and remarriage were also contrary to Jewish law. Complaints from the Jews and Samaritans to Augustus finally resulted in an investigation and Archelaus’ banishment in the ninth or tenth year of his reign. Judea thereafter was under Roman governors.—See HEROD.

ARCHER

The use of the bow and arrow after the Flood enabled man to kill animals that were too fast and dangerous to be taken otherwise, for food, clothing and shelter. With the rise of Nimrod, archers likely were pressed into his service

In the twentieth century B.C.E., Abraham’s firstborn son Ishmael “became an archer” to sustain himself in the wilderness. (Gen. 21:20) Similarly, Esau, the grandson of Abraham, could handle the bow with skill. (Gen. 27:3) Monuments testify that from the earliest times Egypt’s principal offensive warriors were archers, and there are also Babylonian sculptures of archers. In the days of Joshua (Josh. 24:12) and David (1 Chron. 12:1, 2), and thereafter, archers were an important part of Israel’s army. (2 Chron. 14:8; 26:14) Archers of the Philistines, Syrians and Egyptians shot Kings Saul, Ahab and Josiah respectively.—1 Sam. 31:1-3; 1 Ki. 22:34, 35; 2 Chron. 35:20, 23.

Reliefs in Nineveh illustrate Assyrian archers in chariots carrying two bows, one long, one short. When shooting one arrow they held extras in the hand, thus increasing the rapidity of their fire. The Assyrian plan of attack seemed to be to overwhelm the enemy under a flood of arrows, and then use the sword and spear in pursuit.

The Persians have been called the most expert archers in the world. Reliefs from Persepolis and Susa show Median and Persian soldiers equipped with bows and quivers. From the age of five until twenty Persian boys were taught archery and riding; their cavalry were experts even when shooting backward. Mobility and freedom of movement of the archers was the basic plan of Persian strategy in storming the foe under a hail of arrows.

The Western empires of Greece and Rome did not esteem the bow and arrow as highly as the Eastern nations, though at times archers played a significant role in their victories. This may have been due to the Greek method of drawing the bow to the body, a less effective style, instead of drawing to the cheek or eye as did the Egyptians and Persians. Mercenary Cretans and Asiatics seemed to have supplied the skilled bowmen, while the Greeks and Romans relied on the sword and spear.

See ARMS, ARMOR.

[Picture on page 114]

Egyptian archer standing in a chariot, as depicted in painting found in tomb of Thebes

ARCHIPPUS

(Ar·chipʹpus) [master of the horse].

In his letter to the Colossian Christians Paul exhorts Archippus to faithfulness in the ministry, and in his letter to Philemon affectionately refers to him as a “fellow soldier.” (Col. 4:17; Philem. 2) Both letters, written near the end of Paul’s first imprisonment in Rome (c. 60-61 C.E.), indicate that Archippus was then living in or near Colossae in Asia Minor.

ARCHITE

(Arʹchite).

Although the term could refer to a member of an unidentified Canaanite tribe, it appears more likely that it refers to a well-known family or clan located in the area of Ataroth, SW of Bethel. (Josh. 16:2) A town named ʽAin ʽArik to the W of Bethel is suggested by some as the source or the remaining evidence of the name. Hushai, David’s faithful counselor, was an Archite.—1 Chron. 27:33; see HUSHAI.

ARCHITECTURE

The art or science of building. The Bible shows a diversification of dwelling places and living habits early in human history, during the 1,656 years prior to the flood of Noah’s day. Cain, after the murder of Abel, is spoken of as ‘taking up residence’ in a certain area, and there “he engaged in building a city.” (Gen. 4:16, 17) Yet, one of his descendants, Jabal, became the “founder of those who dwell in tents and have livestock.” Another became a “forger of every sort of tool of copper and iron.” (Gen. 4:20, 22) The descendants of Cain perished at least by the time of the Flood; however, constructive ability and the use of tools did not perish with them.

The outstanding work of building of that pre-Flood period was done by descendants of Seth: the ark constructed by Noah and his sons. While the basic plans and dimensions were provided by God, yet some architectonic ability must doubtless be attributed to Noah as the human director of works. It was 43.8 feet (13.4 meters) high, with a length of 437.5 feet (133.5 meters), and a width of 72.9 feet (22.3 meters). It could have had about 2.1 acres (.9 hectares) of floor space. The three floors, plus the wide roof span probably required the use of some wooden columns and beams, in addition to the ‘compartment’ divisions, to support the weight, as well as to give the structure necessary stability. Although the ark was caulked with tar, there would also be need for careful fitting of the timbers to ensure a reasonably watertight construction.—Gen. 6:13-16; see ARK.

EARLY POST-FLOOD CONSTRUCTION

In the post-Flood era Nimrod is described as a prominent builder of several cities. (Gen. 10:8-12) Another major building project was now put forward, the Tower of Babel, disapproved by God. Here, new materials are mentioned, kiln-baked bricks with bitumen serving as mortar. The tower was intended to be the highest structure up till that time.—Gen. 11:3, 4.

Abraham, the forefather of the Israelites, doubtless saw fairly advanced styles of architecture in Ur of the Chaldeans. (Gen. 11:31) Excavations there reveal evidences of city streets, two-story houses with brick stairs, and complexes of temples and palaces, considered as dating back to the third millennium B.C.E. Here, too, is found some of the earliest evidence of the use of the corbelled vault or cantilever arch (formed by building the two sides of a wall closer and closer together until the gap between them can be bridged with a row of stones or bricks), as well as of the true curved arch with keystone.

Later, during his stay in Egypt (Gen. 12:10), Abraham may have witnessed some of the architectural splendors of that land. The step-pyramid of King Djoser at Saqqara is supposed to date from the third millennium B.C.E. and is one of the earliest examples remaining of major constructions using cut stone. The Great Pyramid of Cheops, built somewhat later at Gizeh, has a huge base of thirteen acres (5.3 hectares) and was made of some 2,300,000 blocks of limestone, each weighing two and a half tons (2,268 kilograms) on the average. It was originally 481 feet (146.6 meters) high. Not only the size but also the precision achieved makes it a project amazing even modern engineers. Several centuries later at Karnak, farther up the Nile, the Egyptians produced the largest known temple built by man. The roof of its great hall was supported by 134 enormous columns, each over ten feet (3 meters) in diameter, decorated with richly colored reliefs.

ISRAELITE ARCHITECTURE

During the oppression of the Israelites in Egypt they did considerable building work as slaves under Egyptian taskmasters. (Ex. 1:11-14) Later, in the wilderness Jehovah gave them precise instructions for the construction of the tabernacle, with panel frames, socket pedestals, bars and pillars, which also required considerable architectonic ability on their part. (Ex. 25:9, 40; 26:15-37; Heb. 8:5) While the majority of those doing such work, and who had done building in Egypt, undoubtedly died before reaching the Promised Land, a concept of building methods and the use of tools was surely carried over by the survivors. (Compare Deuteronomy 27:5.) The Mosaic law prescribed at least one requirement for construction. (Deut. 22:8) The Israelites, upon conquering the land, of course, did take over entire cities and villages with their completed constructions, but they also did building themselves. (Num. 32:16; Deut. 6:10, 11; 8:12) At the time of their entry (1473 B.C.E.), Palestine was a land with numerous walled cities and strong fortifications.—Num. 13:28.

While it is true that no striking constructions remain to indicate Israelite originality or ingenuity as to architecture, it does not logically follow that they were lacking in such ability. Unlike the pagan nations, they did not erect huge monuments in honor of political rulers or military heroes. The one temple constructed was at Jerusalem, although apostasy produced other religious sites. Nothing remains of the original temple nor of its successor. Among the more impressive ruins uncovered are those of the identical city gates of ancient Megiddo and Gezer, thought to have been built in Solomon’s time. (1 Ki. 9:15) In each case the sixty-six-foot-long (20 meters) external walls were made with carefully drafted stones. Within the gate passage there were three successive pairs of jambs or extended piers, thus producing six recessed chambers flanking the passage on either side, in which business might be transacted or from which soldiers could harass any attempting to force their way through the gates. (See GATE.) At Megiddo and at Samaria examples of expert masonry have been found, the stones being carefully chiseled and laid and joined with fine precision, in some cases so exactly that even a thin knife blade cannot be inserted between the joined stones. Undoubtedly the work on the temple built by Solomon was of the same high quality.—1 Ki. 5:17; 6:7.