USES

From time immemorial wine has been used as a beverage at mealtimes. (Gen. 27:25; Eccl. 9:7) Wine, bread and other foods are often associated together. (1 Sam. 16:20; Song of Sol. 5:1; Isa. 22:13; 55:1) Melchizedek set “bread and wine” before Abraham. (Gen. 14:18-20) Jesus drank wine with his meals when it was available. (Matt. 11:19; Luke 7:34) Wine was very much a part of banquets (Esther 1:7; 5:6; 7:2, 7, 8), wedding feasts (John 2:2, 3, 9, 10; 4:46), and other festive occasions. (1 Chron. 12:39, 40; Job 1:13, 18) The royal commissaries were stocked with wines (1 Chron. 27:27; 2 Chron. 11:11); it was the customary beverage of kings and governors. (Neh 2:1; 5:15, 18; Dan. 1:5, 8, 16) Travelers often included it in their provisions for the journey.—Josh. 9:4, 13; Judg. 19:19.

Its wide usage made wine a commodity of trade (Neh. 13:15), the “wine of Helbon” (preferred by the kings of Persia) and the “wine of Lebanon” being particularly famous. (Ezek. 27:18; Hos. 14:7) Wine was a medium of payment for workers employed in providing wood used in building the temple. (2 Chron. 2:8-10, 15) It was considered an excellent gift for one’s superiors (1 Sam. 25:18; 2 Sam. 16:1, 2), and was included in the tithing contribution given for the support of the priests and Levites. (Deut. 18:3, 4; 2 Chron. 31:4, 5; Neh. 10:37, 39; 13:5, 12) And wine was among the choice things offered up to Jehovah in sacrificial worship of him.—Ex. 29:38, 40; Lev. 23:13; Num. 15:5, 7, 10; 28:14; 1 Sam. 1:24; 10:3; Hos. 9:4.

Wine was not at first a part of the Passover meal, but was added later, perhaps after the return from Babylonian exile. It was therefore on the table when Jesus celebrated the Passover the last time with his apostles and was conveniently used by him in instituting the Memorial of his death. The red “blood of grapes” was a fitting representation of Jesus’ own sacrificial blood. On that occasion Jesus spoke of such wine as “this product of the vine,” and since it was perhaps seven months after the grape harvest there can be no question but that it was fermented juice of the vine.—Gen. 49:11; Matt. 26:18, 27-29.

As indicated by Jesus and reported by the physician Luke, wine had certain medicinal value as an antiseptic and mild disinfectant. (Luke 10:34) The Bible also recommends it as a curative remedy in cases of certain intestinal disturbances. Paul counseled Timothy: “Do not drink water any longer, but use a little wine for the sake of your stomach and your frequent cases of sickness.” (1 Tim. 5:23) This was sound medical advice. Dr. Salvatore P. Lucia, professor of medicine, University of California School of Medicine, writes: “Wine is the most ancient dietary beverage and the most important medicinal agent in continuous use throughout the history of mankind. . . . Actually, few other substances available to man have been as widely recommended for their curative powers as have wines.”—Wine as Food and Medicine, pp. 5, 58; see DISEASES AND TREATMENT, page 453.

Contrary to the erroneous opinions of some, alcoholic liquors are not mental stimulants, but are in reality sedatives and depressants of the central nervous system. “Give intoxicating liquor, you people, to the one about to perish and wine to those who are bitter of soul,” not as a mental stimulant to make such ones more conscious of their misery, but, rather, as the proverb says, that they may ‘forget their troubles.’ (Prov. 31:6, 7) There was an ancient custom among the Romans of giving criminals drugged wine to blunt the pain of execution. Perhaps this is why Roman soldiers offered Jesus drugged wine when impaling him.—Mark 15:23.

It is apparent that wine is one of the gifts included among Jehovah’s blessings to mankind. Wine “makes the heart of mortal man rejoice”; it puts the heart in “a merry mood.” (Ps. 104:15; Esther 1:10; 2 Sam. 13:28; Eccl. 2:3; 10:19; Zech. 10:7) Hence, Daniel, when in mourning drank no wine. (Dan. 10:2, 3) An abundant supply of wine, symbolized by the “vine” in the oft-repeated expression ‘sitting under one’s own vine and fig tree,’ denotes prosperity and security under Jehovah’s righteous administration. (1 Ki. 4:25; 2 Ki. 18:31; Isa. 36:16; Mic. 4:4; Zech. 3:10) Wine is also included in the restoration blessings promised by Jehovah.—Joel 3:18; Amos 9:13, 14; Zech. 9:17.

TEMPERATE USE

Moderation in all things is a Bible principle. Even honey is no exception—in moderation it is good; overeating of the same is injurious. (Prov. 25:27) So also with Jehovah’s gifts of wine and strong drink; they must be used as he directs. Overindulgence and disregard for Bible principles in the use of these provisions brings Jehovah’s disapproval and leads to debauchery and death. The Bible is very emphatic on this matter, both in its precepts and its examples.—Prov. 23:29-31; see DRUNKENNESS.

There may be cases where drinking alcohol, even in small quantities, would be ill-advised and detrimental to one’s health. On other occasions one may refrain from drinking intoxicating liquor to avoid stumbling others and out of love and consideration for others.—Rom. 14:21.

Jehovah forbade the priests and Levites, when on duty at the tabernacle or temple, to drink alcohol in any form, under the penalty of death. (Lev. 10:8, 9; Ezek. 44:21) Off duty they were free to drink in moderation. (1 Chron. 9:29) So too it was a divine regulation that a Nazirite was not to drink any alcoholic beverage while under this special vow. (Num. 6:2-4, 13-20; Amos 2:12) Because Samson was to be a Nazirite from birth, his mother was not allowed to touch wine or liquor during her pregnancy. (Judg. 13:4, 5, 7, 14) When officiating, “it is not for kings to drink wine or for high officials to say: ‘Where is intoxicating liquor?’,” lest they “forget what is decreed and pervert the cause of any of the sons of affliction.” (Prov. 31:4, 5) Overseers in the Christian congregation should not be “drunken brawlers,” and ministerial servants “should likewise be serious, . . . not giving themselves to a lot of wine.”—1 Tim. 3:3, 8:

PICTORIAL

Ancient Babylon, when acting as Jehovah’s executioner, made all the nations ‘drunk on wine,’ symbolic of Jehovah’s wrath against the nations. (Jer. 51:7) Also in other texts, opponents of Jehovah are depicted as being forced to drink of God’s righteous indignation, likened to “wine [that] is foaming,” “the wine of rage,” “the wine of the anger of God.” (Ps. 75:8; Jer. 25:15; Rev. 14:10; 16:19) A bitter potion that has no relationship to divine anger is the “passion-arousing wine” that “Babylon the great” makes all the nations drink.—Rev. 14:8; 17:2; 18:3, 13.

WINEPRESS

See PRESS.

WINESKINS

The Greek word aʹskos designates a bag or bottle made of a whole animal skin. Jesus Christ said: “Neither do people put new wine into old wineskins; but if they do, then the wineskins burst and the wine spills out and the wineskins are ruined. But people put new wine into new wineskins, and both things are preserved.” (Matt. 9:17; Mark 2:22; Luke 5:37, 38) As new wine ferments, it generates carbon dioxide gas that causes the skin bottles when new to expand. Old, inflexible skins burst under the pressure.

This illustration was part of Jesus’ answer as to why his disciples did not conform to all the old customs and practices of the Pharisees. Jesus evidently implied that the truth of Christianity was too powerful and energetic to be retained by the old system of Judaism, which lacked vitality and elasticity and which was fast passing away. (Matt. 9:14-16) For a general discussion of skin bottles and their uses, see BOTTLE.

WINNOWING

The final step in separating cereal grains such as barley and wheat from their chaff and straw. After threshing has broken the grain kernels loose from the chaff, and the straw has been cut into small pieces, the whole mixture is winnowed by tossing it into the air against the wind with a winnowing shovel or fork. (Isa. 30:24) The breeze, especially strong in the evening, blows the chaff away, carries the straw off to the side, and lets the heavy kernels fall back onto the threshing floor. (Ruth 3:2) After the grain is passed through a sieve to remove pebbles and the like, it is ready for grinding or storage.—Amos 9:9; Luke 22:31.

Often ‘winnowing’ is used in a figurative sense. For example, Jehovah purposed to send “winnowers” against Babylon and her inhabitants so that these might winnow her. (Jer. 51:1, 2) The “winnowers” proved to be the Medes and the Persians under Cyrus. In effect, they tossed Babylon and her inhabitants into the air, that the wind might catch them and blow them away like chaff to be burned. (Matt. 3:12; Luke 3:17) Similarly, as foretold, Jehovah had earlier used Babylon to winnow his people, scattering them in defeat. (Jer. 15:7) And, through the prophet Isaiah, Jehovah gave the assurance to his people that the time would come when they would reduce their enemies to chaff and winnow them. (Isa. 41:14-16) At Jeremiah 4:11 a “searing wind” to come against Jerusalem is said to be “not for winnowing, nor for cleansing.” A tempestuous, searing wind would not be suitable for winnowing, so this points to its destructive nature.

WISDOM

The basic terms signifying wisdom are the Hebrew hhokh·mahʹ (verb, hha·khamʹ) and the Greek so·phiʹa, with their related forms. Also, there are the Hebrew tu·shi·yahʹ, which may be rendered as “effectual working” or “practical wisdom,” and the Greek phroʹni·mos and phroʹne·sis (from phren, the “mind”), relating to “sensibleness,” “discretion,” or “practical wisdom.”

For hhokh·mahʹ the Commentaries on the Old Testament by Keil and Delitzsch (The Song of Songs, Ecclesiastes, p. 230) give the basic sense of “solidity, compactness,” and describe it as “solid knowledge of the true and the right.” The Biblical sense of wisdom, whether expressed by the Hebrew hhokh·mahʹ or the Greek so·phiʹa, lays emphasis on sound judgment, based on knowledge and understanding; the ability to use knowledge and understanding successfully to solve problems, avoid or avert dangers, attain certain goals or to counsel others in doing so. “Wisdom is proved righteous [“justified”] by all its children [or, its works].” (Luke 7:35; Matt. 11:19, Kingdom Interlinear Translation) It is the opposite of foolishness, stupidity and madness, with which it is often contrasted.—Deut. 32:6; Prov. 11:29; Eccl. 6:8.

Wisdom thus implies a breadth of knowledge, and a depth of understanding, these giving the soundness and clarity of judgment characteristic of wisdom. The wise man ‘treasures up knowledge,’ has a fund of it to draw upon. (Prov. 10:14) While “wisdom is the prime thing,” the counsel is that “with all that you acquire, acquire understanding.” (Prov. 4:5-7) Understanding (a broad term that frequently embraces discernment and insight) adds strength to wisdom, contributing greatly to discretion and foresight, also notable characteristics of wisdom. Discretion implies prudence, may be expressed in caution, self-control, moderation or restraint. The “discreet [phroʹni·mos] man” builds his house on a rock-mass, foreseeing the possibility of storm; the foolish man builds his on sand and suffers disaster.—Matt. 7:24-27.

Understanding fortifies wisdom in other ways. For example, a person may obey a certain command of God due to recognizing the rightness of such obedience, and this is wisdom on his part. But if he gets real understanding of the reason for that command, the good purpose it serves and the benefits accruing from it, his heart determination to continue in that wise course is greatly strengthened. (Prov. 14:33) Proverbs 21:11 says that “by one’s giving insight to a wise person he gets knowledge.” The wise person values insight (a facet of understanding) and is happy to get any information that will grant him a clearer view into the underlying circumstances, conditions and causes of problems. Thereby he “gets knowledge” as to what to do regarding the matter, knows what conclusions to draw, what is needed to solve the existing problem.—Compare Proverbs 9:9; Ecclesiastes 7:25; 8:1; Ezekiel 28:3.

DIVINE WISDOM

Wisdom in the absolute sense is found in Jehovah God, who is “wise alone” in this sense. (Rom. 16:27; Rev. 7:12) Knowledge is acquaintance with fact, and, being the Creator, who is “from time indefinite to time indefinite” (Ps. 90:1, 2), God knows all there is to know about the universe, its composition and contents, its history till now. The physical laws, cycles, and standards upon which men rely in their research and invention, and without which they would be helpless, having nothing stable upon which to build, are all of His making. (Job 38:34-38; Ps. 104:24; Prov. 3:19; Jer. 10:12, 13) Logically, his moral standards are even more vital for stability, sound judgment and successful human living. (Deut. 32:4-6; see JEHOVAH [A God of moral standards].) There is nothing beyond his understanding. (Isa. 40:13, 14) Though he may allow things that are contrary to his righteous standards to develop and even temporarily prosper, the future ultimately rests with him and will conform precisely to his will, and the things spoken by him “will have certain success.”—Isa. 55:8-11; 46:9-11.

For all these reasons it is evident that “the fear of Jehovah is the start of wisdom.” (Prov. 9:10) “Who should not fear you, O King of the nations, for to you it is fitting; because among all the wise ones of the nations and among all their kingships there is in no way anyone like you.” (Jer. 10:7) “He is wise in heart and strong in power. Who can show stubbornness to him and come off uninjured?” (Job 9:4; Prov. 14:16) In his mightiness he can intervene at will in human affairs, maneuvering rulers or eliminating them, making his prophetic revelations prove infallible. (Dan. 2:20-23) Biblical history recounts the futile efforts of powerful kings with their astute counselors to pit their wisdom against Him and the way God has triumphantly vindicated his servants who loyally proclaimed his message.—Isa. 31:2; 44:25-28; compare Job 12:12, 13.

“God’s wisdom in a sacred secret”

The rebellion that broke out in Eden presented a challenge to God’s wisdom. His wise means for ending that rebellion, wiping out its effects and restoring peace, harmony and right order in his universal family formed “a sacred secret, the hidden wisdom, which God foreordained before the systems of things,” that is, those systems that have developed during man’s history outside Eden. (1 Cor. 2:7) Its outlines were contained in God’s dealings with, and promises to, his faithful servants during many centuries; it was foreshadowed and symbolized in the Law covenant with Israel, including its priesthood and sacrifices, and was pointed to in innumerable prophecies and visions.

Finally, after more than four thousand years, the wisdom of that sacred secret was revealed in Jesus Christ (Col. 1:26-28), through whom God has purposed