Beyond Mongolia

Northern China was occupied by the Manchu, who called their dynasty Jin, or “Golden.” To reach Manchu territories, the Mongols crossed the forbidding Gobi Desert​—no great obstacle for nomads who, if necessary, could survive on the milk and blood of horses. Although Genghis Khan extended his rule into China and Manchuria, the fighting dragged on for some 20 years. From among the Chinese, he recruited scholars, artisans, and traders, as well as engineers who could build siege engines, catapults, and gunpowder bombs.

Ögödei reasserted control over the conquered lands, received tribute from vassal rulers, and completed the conquest of the Jin dynasty in northern China.

In order to maintain both the empire and the lavish lifestyle to which the Mongols had become accustomed, Ögödei eventually decided to go to war again​—but against lands not yet plundered. He launched attacks on two fronts​—against European lands to the west and against the Sung dynasty in southern China. The European campaign was a success, but the other was not. Despite some gains, the Mongols failed to conquer the main territory of the Sung.

Another Assault on Two Fronts

The next Great Khan was Mongke, enthroned in 1251. He and his brother Kublai launched assaults on the Sung dynasty in southern China, while another force headed west.

The assault into southern China against the wealthy Sung dynasty was victorious. In fact, Kublai Khan proclaimed himself founder of a new Chinese dynasty, naming it Yuan. The site of his new capital is today known as Beijing. After defeating the remaining Sung holdouts in the late 1270’s, Kublai ruled over a China that was united for the first time since the fall of the Tang dynasty in 907.

In China, power struggles weakened the authority of Kublai’s descendants. In 1368 the Chinese, weary of inept rule, corruption, and heavy taxes, overthrew their Yuan masters, forcing them back to Mongolia.