China’s Other Prominent Sage

22. What school of thought came to dominance in China, and what questions do we need to consider?

²² While we have traced the rise, development, and decay of Taoism, we should recall that it was just one of the “hundred schools” that blossomed in China during the period of the Warring States. Another school that eventually came to prominence, in fact, dominance, was Confucianism. But why did Confucianism come to such prominence? Of all Chinese sages, Confucius is undoubtedly the best-known outside of China, but who really was he? And what did he teach?

23. What personal details regarding Confucius are given in the “Historical Records”?

²³ Regarding Confucius, we again turn to the Shih Chi (Historical Records) of Ssu-ma Ch’ien. In contrast to the brief sketch on Lao-tzu, we find an extended biography of Confucius. Here are some personal details quoted from a translation by the Chinese scholar Lin Yutang:

“Confucius was born in the town of Tsou, in the county of Ch’angping, in the country of Lu. . . . [His mother] prayed at the hill Nich’iu and begat Confucius in answer to her prayer, in the twenty-second year of Duke Hsiang of Lu (551 B.C.). There was a noticeable convolution on his head at his birth, and that was why he was called ‘Ch’iu’ (meaning a “hill”). His literary name was Chungni, and his surname was K’ung.”c

24. What happened during the early life of Confucius?

²⁴ Shortly after his birth, his father died, but his mother, though poor, managed to provide him with a proper education. The boy developed a keen interest in history, poetry, and music. According to The Analects, one of the Confucian Four Books, he devoted himself to scholarly study when he reached age 15. At age 17, he was given a minor government post in his native state of Lu.

25. How did the death of Confucius’ mother affect him? (Compare Ecclesiastes 9:5, 6; John 11:33, 35.)

²⁵ His financial status apparently improved, so that he married at the age of 19 and had a son the next year. In his middle 20’s, however, his mother died. That evidently had quite an effect on him. Being a meticulous observer of ancient traditions, Confucius retired from public life and mourned his mother at her grave for 27 months, thus furnishing the Chinese with a classic example of filial piety.

Confucius the Teacher

26. What profession did Confucius take up after the death of his mother?

²⁶ Thereafter, he left his family and took up the occupation of a wandering teacher. The subjects he taught included music, poetry, literature, civics, ethics, and science, or what there was of it at that time. He must have made quite a name for himself, for it was said that at one time he had as many as 3,000 students.

27. What is known about Confucius as a teacher? (Compare Matthew 6:26, 28; 9:16, 17; Luke 12:54-57; John 4:35-38.)

²⁷ In the Orient, Confucius is revered principally as a master teacher. In fact the epitaph on his grave in Ch’ü-fou, Shantung Province, reads simply “Ancient, Most Holy Teacher.” One Western writer describes his teaching method this way: “He walked about from ‘place to place accompanied by those who were absorbing his views of life.’ Whenever the journey took them any distance he rode in an ox cart. The slow pace of the animal enabled his pupils to follow on foot, and it is evident that the subject of his lectures was frequently suggested by events occurring on the road.” Interestingly, Jesus at a later date, and independently, used a similar method.

28. According to the Chinese writer Lin Yutang, what made Confucius an honored teacher?

²⁸ What made Confucius an honored teacher among the Orientals, no doubt, was the fact that he was a good student himself, especially of history and ethics. “People were attracted to Confucius, less because he was the wisest man of his time, than because he was the most learned scholar, the only one of his day who could teach them about the ancient books and ancient scholarship,” wrote Lin Yutang. Pointing to this love of learning as perhaps the key reason Confucianism triumphed over other schools of thought, Lin summarized the matter this way: “The Confucian teachers had something definite to teach and the Confucian pupils had something definite to learn, namely, historical learning, while the other schools were forced to air merely their own opinions.”

“It Is Heaven That Knows Me!”

29. (a) What was Confucius’ real ambition in life? (b) How did he try to achieve his ambition, and with what result?

²⁹ In spite of his success as a teacher, Confucius did not consider teaching to be his lifework. He felt that his ideas on ethics and morals could save the troubled world of his day if only the rulers would apply them by employing him or his pupils in their governments. To this end, he and a small group of his closest disciples left his native state of Lu and went traveling from state to state trying to find the wise ruler who would adopt his ideas on government and social order. What was the outcome? Shih Chi states: “Finally he left Lu, was abandoned in Ch’i, was driven out of Sung and Wei, suffered want between Ch’en and Ts’ai.” After 14 years on the road, he returned to Lu, disappointed but not broken.

30. What literary works form the basis of Confucianism?

³⁰ For the remainder of his days, he devoted himself to literary work and teaching. (See box, page 177.) Though undoubtedly he lamented his obscurity, he said: “I do not murmur against Heaven. I do not grumble against man. I pursue my studies here on earth, and am in touch with Heaven above. It is Heaven that knows me!” Finally, in the year 479 B.C.E., he died at the age of 73.

The Essence of Confucian Ideas

31. What did Confucius teach was the way to achieve social order?

³¹ Although Confucius excelled as a scholar and as a teacher, his influence was by no means limited to scholastic circles. In fact, the aim of Confucius was not just to teach rules of conduct or morals but also to restore peace and order to society, which was, at the time, torn apart by the constant warfare between the feudal lords. To achieve that goal, Confucius taught that everyone, from the emperor to the common folk, must learn what role he was expected to play in society and live accordingly.

32, 33. (a) What was the Confucian concept of li? (b) According to Confucius, what would be the result of practicing li?

³² In Confucianism this concept is known as li, which means propriety, courtesy, the order of things, and, by extension, ritual, ceremony, and reverence. In answer to the question, “What is this great li?” Confucius gave the following explanation:

“Of all the things that the people live by, li is the greatest. Without li, we do not know how to conduct a proper worship of the spirits of the universe; or how to establish the proper status of the king and the ministers, the ruler and the ruled, and the elders and the juniors; or how to establish the moral relationships between the sexes, between parents and children and between brothers; or how to distinguish the different degrees of relationships in the family. That is why a gentleman holds li in such high regard.”

³³ Hence, li is the rule of conduct by which a true gentleman (chün-tzu, sometimes translated “superior man”) carries out all his social relations. When everyone endeavors to do so, “everything becomes right in the family, the state and the world,” said Confucius, and that is when Tao, or heaven’s way, is done. But how is li to be expressed? That takes us to another of the central concepts of Confucianism​—jen (pronounced ren), humaneness or human-heartedness.

34. What is the Confucian concept of jen, and how does it help in dealing with social ills?

³⁴ While li emphasizes restraint by external rules, jen deals with human nature, or the inner person. The Confucian concept, especially as expressed by Confucius’ principal disciple, Mencius, is that human nature is basically good. Thus, the solution to all social ills lies in self-cultivation, and that starts with education and knowledge. The opening chapter of The Great Learning says:

“When true knowledge is achieved, then the will becomes sincere; when the will is sincere, then the heart is set right . . . ; when the heart is set right, then the personal life is cultivated; when the personal life is cultivated, then the family life is regulated; when the family life is regulated, then the national life is orderly; and when the national life is orderly, then there is peace in this world. From the emperor down to the common men, all must regard the cultivation of the personal life as the root or foundation.”

35. (a) How can the principles of li and jen be summarized? (b) How is all of this reflected in the Chinese view of life?

³⁵ Thus, we see that according to Confucius, the observance of li will enable people to behave properly in every situation, and the cultivation of jen will make them treat everyone else kindly. The result, theoretically, is peace and harmony in society. The Confucian ideal, based on the principles of li and jen, can be summarized this way:

All of this helps to explain why most Chinese people, and even other Orientals, place so much emphasis on family ties, on being industrious, on education, and on knowing and acting according to one’s place. For better or for worse, these Confucian concepts have been driven deep into the Chinese consciousness through centuries of inculcation.

Confucianism Became a State Cult

36. How did Confucianism gain the status of a State cult?

³⁶ With the rise of Confucianism, the period of the “hundred schools” came to an end. Emperors of the Han dynasty found in the Confucian teaching of loyalty to the ruler just the formula they needed to solidify the power of the throne. Under Emperor Wu Ti, whom we have already referred to in connection with Taoism, Confucianism was elevated to the status of a State cult. Only those versed in the Confucian classics were selected as State officials, and anyone hoping to enter government service had to pass nationwide examinations based on the Confucian classics. Confucian rites and rituals became the religion of the royal house.

37. (a) How did Confucianism become a religion? (b) Why, in reality, is Confucianism more than just a philosophy?

³⁷ This change of events did much to elevate the position of Confucius in Chinese society. The Han emperors started the tradition of offering sacrifices at the grave of Confucius. Honorific titles were bestowed on him. Then, in 630 C.E., the T’ang emperor T’ai Tsung ordered that a State temple to Confucius be erected in every province and county throughout the empire and that sacrifices be offered regularly. For all practical purposes, Confucius was elevated to the status of a god, and Confucianism became a religion hardly distinguishable from Taoism or Buddhism.​—See box, page 175.

The Legacy of the Wisdom of the East

38. (a) What has happened to Taoism and Confucianism since 1911? (b) But what is still true of the basic concepts of these religions?

³⁸ Since the end of dynastic rule in China in 1911, Confucianism and Taoism have come under much criticism, even persecution. Taoism was discredited on account of its magical and superstitious practices. And Confucianism has been labeled as feudalistic, promoting a slave mentality to keep people, especially women, under subjection. In spite of such official denunciations, however, the basic concepts of these religions are so deeply embedded in the Chinese mind that they still have a strong hold on many of the people.

39. What does one news report say about superstitious religious practices in China?

³⁹ For example, under the headline “Chinese Religious Rites Rare in Beijing but Flourishing in the Coastal Regions,” the Canadian newspaper Globe and Mail reported in 1987 that after nearly 40 years of atheistic rule in China, funeral rites, temple services, and many superstitious practices are still common in rural areas. “Most villages have a fengshui man, usually an elderly resident who knows how to read the forces of wind (feng) and water (shui) to determine the most propitious location for everything from the ancestral grave, a new house or living room furniture,” says the report.

40. What religious practices are seen in Taiwan?

⁴⁰ Elsewhere, Taoism and Confucianism are found wherever traditional Chinese culture survives. In Taiwan, one man who claims to be a descendant of Chang Tao-ling presides as “celestial master” with the power to ordain Taoist priests (Tao Shih). The popular goddess Matsu, billed as “Holy Mother in Heaven,” is worshiped as the patron saint of the island and of sailors and fishermen. As for the common people, they are mostly preoccupied with making offerings and sacrifices to the spirits of the rivers, mountains, and stars; the patron deities of all the trades; and the gods of health, good luck, and wealth.d

41. How is Confucianism as a religion carried on today?

⁴¹ What about Confucianism? Its role as a religion has been reduced to the status of a national monument. In China at Ch’ü-fou, the birthplace of Confucius, the State maintains the Temple of Confucius and family grounds as tourist attractions. There, according to the magazine China Reconstructs, performances are put on “reenacting a ritual of worship for Confucius.” And in Singapore, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and other places in eastern Asia, people still celebrate Confucius’ birthday.

42. How do Taoism and Confucianism fall short as guides in the search for the true God?

⁴² In Confucianism and Taoism, we see how a system based on human wisdom and reasoning, no matter how logical and well-meaning, ultimately falls short in the search for the true God. Why? Because it leaves out one essential element, namely, the will and requirements of a personal God. Confucianism turns to human nature as the motivating force to do good, and Taoism turns to nature itself. But this is misplaced confidence because it simply amounts to worshiping created things rather than the Creator.​—Psalm 62:9; 146:3, 4; Jeremiah 17:5.

43. How have the religious traditions of the Chinese worked against them as a whole in the search for the true God?

⁴³ On the other hand, the traditions of ancestor and idol worship, reverence for a cosmic heaven, and veneration of spirits in nature, as well as the rites and rituals connected with them, have become so deeply rooted in the Chinese way of thinking that they are accepted as the unspoken truth. Often it is very difficult to talk to a Chinese person about a personal God or Creator because the concept is so foreign to him.​—Romans 1:20-25.

[Box on page 175]

Confucianism​—Philosophy or Religion?

Because Confucius made few comments about God, many people view Confucianism as only a philosophy and not a religion. Yet, what he said and did showed that he was religious. This can be seen in two respects. First, he had a reverent fear for a supreme cosmic spiritual power, what the Chinese call T’ien, or Heaven, which he regarded as the source of all virtue and moral goodness and whose will, he felt, directs all things. Second, he placed great emphasis on meticulous observance of the rites and ceremonies relating to the worship of heaven and the spirits of departed ancestors.

Though Confucius never advocated these views as a form of religion, to generations of Chinese they have become what religion is all about.

[Box/​Pictures on page 177]

Confucian Four Books and Five Classics

The Four Books

1. The Great Learning (Ta Hsüeh), the basis of a gentleman’s education, the first text studied by schoolboys in old China

2. The Doctrine of the Mean (Chung Yung), a treatise on the development of human nature through moderation

3. The Analects (Lun Yü), a collection of Confucius’ sayings, considered the main source of Confucian thought

4. The Book of Mencius (Meng-tzu), writings and sayings of Confucius’ greatest disciple, Meng-tzu, or Mencius

The Five Classics

1. The Book of Poetry (Shih Ching), 305 poems providing a picture of daily life in early Chou times (1000-600 B.C.E.)

2. The Book of History (Shu Ching), covering 17 centuries of Chinese history beginning with the Shang dynasty (1766-1122 B.C.E.)

3. The Book of Changes (I Ching), a book of divination, based on interpretations of the 64 possible combinations of six whole or broken lines

4. The Book of Rites (Li Chi), a collection of rules on ceremonies and rituals

5. Annals of Spring and Autumn (Ch’un Ch’iu), a history of Confucius’ native state of Lu, covering 721-478 B.C.E.

[Pictures]

Five Classics, above, and a portion, left, of The Great Learning (one of the Four Books), quoted on page 181