But in Europe over two thousand years later, the process of picking the elite, those best qualified to rule, had little to do with “ability and moral excellence.” Harvard professor Carl J. Friedrich notes that “the elite in aristocratic England of the eighteenth century was an elite based primarily on blood descent and riches. The same thing was true in Venice.” He adds: “In some countries such as eighteenth-century Prussia, the elite was based on blood descent and military prowess.”

The idea that the good qualities of ‘better people’ were passed on to their offspring accounts for the marriage practices of monarchs in bygone days. During the Middle Ages, the idea of biologic superiority prevailed. Marrying a commoner was equivalent to diluting the nobleness of the clan, an offending of divine law. Monarchs were obliged to marry only those of noble birth. This idea of biologic superiority later gave way to a more rationalized justification​—that of a superiority based on better opportunities, education, talents, or achievements.

A principle known as noblesse oblige was intended to ensure the success of aristocracies. Literally meaning “nobility obligates,” it signified “the obligation of honorable, generous, and responsible behavior associated with high rank or birth.” Because of their “superiority,” those of noble birth were obligated to serve the needs of others responsibly. This principle was found in such aristocracies as the one in ancient Sparta, whose warriors were obliged to put the interests of others before their own, and in Japan among the warrior caste, the samurai.

For the next 1,200 years or so, aristocratic governments, even though monarchical in name, were the European norm. In time many political, economic, and cultural changes gradually modified the system. But during the entire period, European aristocracy remained powerful, able to retain its landholdings and its stranglehold on military offices, while becoming ever more parasitic, extravagant, arrogant, and frivolous.

In the 1780’s the aristocracy suffered a severe blow. Louis XVI of France, finding himself in financial straits, pleaded with members of the French aristocracy to forgo some of their fiscal privileges. But instead of supporting him, they took advantage of his difficulties, hoping to undermine the monarchy and regain some of their own lost power. “Dissatisfied with government of the people, by the king, for the aristocracy, they [the aristocracy] sought government of the people, by the aristocracy, for the aristocracy,” explains Herman Ausubel, professor of history at Columbia University.