After 20 years of fighting, one khan, Temüjin (c. 1162-1227), united some 27 Mongol tribes under his leadership. Later, Muslims of Turkic origin called Tatars fought alongside the Mongols. In fact, when the Mongol juggernaut rode west, terrified Europeans called the invaders Tartars.b In 1206, when Temüjin was a little over 40 years of age, the Mongols made him Genghis Khan​—a title that may mean “strong ruler” or “universal ruler.” He was also known as the Great Khan.

Genghis Khan’s hordes of mounted archers attacked with speed and fury, often on multiple fronts stretching thousands of miles. Militarily, “he was the equal of Alexander the Great or Napoleon I,” says Encarta Encyclopedia. Persian historian Juzjani, a contemporary of Genghis Khan, described him as “possessed of great energy, discernment, genius and understanding.” He also labeled him “a butcher.”

Beyond Mongolia

Northern China was occupied by the Manchu, who called their dynasty Jin, or “Golden.” To reach Manchu territories, the Mongols crossed the forbidding Gobi Desert​—no great obstacle for nomads who, if necessary, could survive on the milk and blood of horses. Although Genghis Khan extended his rule into China and Manchuria, the fighting dragged on for some 20 years. From among the Chinese, he recruited scholars, artisans, and traders, as well as engineers who could build siege engines, catapults, and gunpowder bombs.

After securing control over the Silk Road trade routes toward lands farther west, Genghis Khan sought a trading partnership with the neighboring Turkic Sultan Muhammad. The sultan ruled a vast empire that covered today’s Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and most of Iran.

In 1218 a Mongol delegation, ostensibly interested in trade, arrived at the sultan’s frontier. But the local governor executed them, triggering events that led to the first Mongol invasion of a Muslim land. For the next three years, the Mongols, said to be more numerous than ants, systematically pillaged and burned cities and fields and slaughtered Sultan Muhammad’s people en masse, except for those who had skills the Mongols desired.

Mongol forces, estimated to number about 20,000, then rode through Azerbaijan and Georgia to the steppes north of Caucasia, defeating every army they met, including a Russian force of 80,000. In a ride of some 8,000 miles [13,000 km], the Mongols circled the Caspian Sea in what some consider to be one of the greatest cavalry exploits in history. Their string of conquests set a precedent for the future invasion of Eastern Europe by later Mongol rulers.

Genghis Khan’s Successors

Ögödei, the third of Genghis Khan’s four sons by his principal wife, was made the next Great Khan. Ögödei reasserted control over the conquered lands, received tribute from vassal rulers, and completed the conquest of the Jin dynasty in northern China.

In order to maintain both the empire and the lavish lifestyle to which the Mongols had become accustomed, Ögödei eventually decided to go to war again​—but against lands not yet plundered. He launched attacks on two fronts​—against European lands to the west and against the Sung dynasty in southern China. The European campaign was a success, but the other was not. Despite some gains, the Mongols failed to conquer the main territory of the Sung.

[Picture on page 15]

Genghis Khan