middle mountain regions of Palestine and grows in other Mediterranean countries as well.

Laurel leaves were used by the ancient Greeks to form wreaths, which they placed on the heads of victors in the Pythian games and also extended to those holding certain offices as a symbol of distinction. Our English words “laureate” and “baccalaureate” are derived from these practices and uses of the laurel.

LAW

Law is defined as: “1. The principles and regulations emanating from a government and applicable to a people, whether in the form of legislation or of custom and policies recognized and enforced by judicial decision. 2. Any written or positive rule, or collection of rules, prescribed under the authority of the state or nation.”—American College Dictionary.

“A divine commandment or a revelation of the Will of God; collectively, the whole body of God’s commandments or revelations; the will of God, whether expressed in Scripture, implanted in instinct, or deduced by reason.”—Webster’s New International Dictionary.

The word “law,” in the Hebrew Scriptures, is translated primarily from toh·rahʹ, related to the verb hoh·rahʹ, meaning “to direct, teach, instruct in; to point, show the way.” In some cases it is translated from dath, “law, decree.” (Dan. 6:5, 8, 15) Other words translated in the Authorized Version as “law” are mish·patʹ, “judicial decision, ordinance, judgment,” and mits·wahʹ, “commandment, ordinance, precept.” In the Greek Scriptures the word noʹmos, from the verb neʹmo, “to deal out, distribute,” is translated “law.”

Jehovah God is designated as the Source of law, the Supreme Lawgiver (Isa. 33:22), the Sovereign, delegating authority (Ps. 73:28; Jer. 50:25; Luke 2:29; Acts 4:24; Rev. 6:10) and without whose permission or allowance no authority can be exercised. (Rom. 13:1; Dan. 4:35; Acts 17:24-31) His throne is established on righteousness and judgment. (Ps. 97:1, 2) The stated will of God becomes law to his creatures.

LAW TO ANGELS

Angels, higher than man, are subject to the law and commandments of God. (Heb. 1:7, 14; Ps. 104:4) Jehovah even commanded and restricted his adversary Satan. (Job 1:12; 2:6) Michael the archangel recognized and respected Jehovah’s position as Supreme Judge when he said, in dispute with the Devil: “May Jehovah rebuke you,” (Jude 9; compare Zechariah 3:2.) The glorified Jesus Christ is shown as having all the angels placed under his authority by Jehovah God. (Heb. 1:6; 1 Pet. 3:22; Matt. 13:41; 25:31; Phil. 2:9-11) An angelic messenger was sent by Jesus’ command to John. (Rev. 1:1) At 1 Corinthians 6:3 the apostle Paul speaks of the spiritual brothers of Christ as designated to judge angels.

LAW OF DIVINE CREATION (sometimes called “law of nature”)

One of the definitions of law given in Webster’s New International Dictionary, Second Edition, is “the observed regularity in nature.” As Creator of all things in heaven and earth (Acts 4:24; Rev. 4:11), Jehovah has established laws governing all created things. Job 38:10 speaks of a “regulation” on the sea; 38:12, of ‘commanding the morning’; and 38:31-33 calls attention to star constellations and to “the statutes of the heavens.” The same chapter points to God as governing the light, snow, hail, clouds, rain, dew and lightning. Continuing to chapters 39-41, God’s care for the animal kingdom is shown and the birth, life cycles and habits of animals are attributed to regulations laid down by God, not to any evolutionary “adaptation.” In fact, in the very creating of life forms God incorporated the law that each was to bring forth “according to its kind,” making evolution impossible. (Gen. 1:11, 12, 21, 24, 25) Man also brought forth sons “in his likeness, in his image.” (Gen. 5:3) At Psalm 139:13-16 the embryonic growth of a child in the womb is spoken of, its parts being written down “in [Jehovah’s] book” before any of them actually existed. Job 26:7 describes Jehovah as “hanging the earth upon nothing.” Scientists today attribute the earth’s position in space primarily to the interaction of the law of gravity and the law of centrifugal force.

LAW TO ADAM.

In the garden of Eden, Adam and Eve were commanded by God as to their duties (1) to fill the earth, (2) to subdue it, (3) to have in subjection all other living creatures of earth, sea and air. (Gen. 1:28) They were given laws as to their diet, granting them the seed-bearing vegetation and fruit as food. (Gen. 1:29; 2:16) However, Adam was given a command that prohibited eating from the tree of the knowledge of good and bad (Gen. 2:17); this was transmitted to Eve. (Gen. 3:2, 3) Adam is presented as a transgressor and a trespasser because he violated a stated law.—Rom. 5:14, 17; 4:15.

LAWS TO NOAH, AND PATRIARCHAL LAW

Noah was given commandments relative to the building of the ark and the saving of his family. (Gen. 6:22) After the Flood he was given laws allowing flesh to be added to man’s diet; declaring sacredness of life and, therefore, of blood, in which is the life; prohibiting the eating of blood; condemning murder and instituting capital punishment for this crime.—Gen. 9:3-6.

The patriarch was a family head and ruler. Jehovah is designated as the great Family Head or Patriarch, “the Father, to whom every family in heaven and on earth owes its name.” (Eph. 3:14, 15) Noah, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob are outstanding examples of patriarchs. These were especially dealt with by Jehovah. Abraham was given the command to circumcise all the males of his household as a sign of God’s covenant with him. (Gen. 17:11, 12) He observed Jehovah’s “commands,” “statutes” and “laws.” He knew Jehovah’s way to do righteousness and judgment and laid these commands on his household.—Gen. 26:4, 5; 18:19.

The laws that governed the patriarchs were also generally understood and partially reflected in the laws of the nations at that time, all of which nations sprang from the three sons of Noah, the patriarch. For example, the Pharaoh of Egypt knew that it was wrong to take another man’s wife (Gen. 12:14-20), as did the kings of the Philistines in the cases of Sarah and Rebekah.—Gen. 20:2-6; 26:7-11.

In the days of Moses the Israelites were in slavery to Egypt. They had voluntarily come into Egypt during Jacob’s lifetime, but were enslaved after Jacob’s son, the prime minister Joseph, had died. So, in effect, they were ‘sold’ into slavery for nothing. Jehovah, in harmony with the patriarchal law of redemption and of the priority of the firstborn son, told Pharaoh, by the mouth of Moses and Aaron: “Israel is my son, my first-born. And I say to you: Send my son away that he may serve me. But should you refuse to send him away, here I am killing your son, your first-born.” (Ex. 4:22, 23) No redemption price was necessary for this release, nor was any given to Egypt. And when the Israelites left their slave masters, the Egyptians, “Jehovah gave the people favor in the eyes of the Egyptians, so that these granted what was asked; and they stripped the Egyptians.” (Ex. 3:21; 12:36) They had entered the land with the approval of the Pharaoh and as free people, not as captives of war to be enslaved. The enslavement had been unjust, so evidently Jehovah was seeing to it that they were now given wages for their labor.

The family was held responsible for violations of law by individual members. The patriarchal head was the responsible representative, blamed for wrongs of his family and required to punish individual wrongdoers in the family.—Gen. 31:30-32.

Marriage and birthright under patriarchal law

Parents governed the arrangement of marriage for their sons and daughters. (Gen. 24:1-4) The paying of a bride-price was common. (Gen. 34:11, 12) Among the worshipers of Jehovah intermarriage with idolaters was disobedience and against the interests of the family.—Gen. 26:34, 35; 27:46; 28:1, 6-9.

The birthright was reserved for the firstborn, belonging to him by inheritance. This included receiving a double portion of the estate. However, it could be transferred by the family head, the father. (Gen. 48:22; 1 Chron. 5:1) The oldest son normally became the patriarchal head when the father died. Sons, after marriage, could establish households separate from the father’s headship and could themselves become family heads.

Morals

Fornication was disgraceful and punishable, especially in cases of engaged persons or married persons (adultery). (Gen. 38:24-26; 34:7) Brother-in-law marriage was practiced when a man died childless. His brother could then take his wife, and the firstborn of their union would inherit the dead man’s estate and carry on his name.—Gen. 38:6-26.

Property

Generally there seems to have been no holding of individual property, aside from a few personal belongings, all herds, household goods and equipment being held in common by the family.—Gen. 31:14-16.

On the basis of related historical evidence, some scholars believe that, in transferring land, the buyer was shown the land from a vantage point, the exact boundaries being designated. When the buyer said, “I see,” he indicated legal acceptance. When Jehovah gave Abraham the promise of receiving the land of Canaan, Abraham was first told to look in all four directions. Abraham did not say, “I see,” perhaps because God said that he would give the Promised Land to Abraham’s seed, later on. (Gen. 13:14, 15) Moses, as the legal representative of Israel, was told to “see” the land, which, if the view just discussed is correct, would indicate legal transfer of the land to Israel, for them to take it under Joshua’s leadership. (Deut. 3:27, 28; 34:4; consider also Satan’s offer to Jesus at Matthew 4:8.) Other actions appearing to have similar legal flavor were: walking across the land or entering it for the purpose of taking possession. (Gen. 13:17; 28:13) In certain ancient secular documents, the exact number of trees on a piece of land was listed at each real-estate sale.—Compare Genesis 23:17, 18.

Custody

Legal responsibility came when an individual promised to keep or ‘guard’ a person, animal or thing. (Gen. 30:31) Reuben, as the firstborn of Jacob, was responsible in the case of Joseph’s disappearance. (Gen. 37:21, 22, 29, 30) The custodian was to give sufficient care to that in his charge. He had to restore animals stolen, but not those that died of themselves or that were lost through events beyond his control, such as to armed sheep rustlers. If killed by a wild beast, evidence of the torn animal had to be produced to clear the custodian of responsibility.—Gen. 37:12-30, 32, 33; Ex. 22:10-13.

Slavery

Slaves might be purchased or be such through birth to slave parents. (Gen. 17:12, 27) Slaves could enjoy a very honored position in the patriarchal household, as was the case with Abraham’s servant Eliezer.—Gen. 15:2; 24:1-4.

LAW OF GOD TO ISRAEL—THE LAW OF MOSES

Jehovah gave Israel the Law through Moses as mediator, in the wilderness of Sinai, 1513 B.C.E. At the inauguration of the Law at Mount Horeb there was an awe-inspiring demonstration of Jehovah’s power. (Ex. 19:16-19; 20:18-21; Heb. 12:18-21, 25, 26) The covenant was validated by the blood of bulls and goats. The people presented communion offerings, and heard the book of the covenant read to them, after which they agreed to be obedient to all that Jehovah had spoken. Many of the earlier patriarchal laws were incorporated in the Law given through Moses.—Ex. 24:3-8; Heb. 9:15-21; see COVENANT.

The first five books of the Bible (Genesis through Deuteronomy) are often referred to as “the Law.” Sometimes this term is used with reference to the entire inspired Hebrew Scriptures. Generally, however, the Jews considered the entire Hebrew Scriptures as composed of three sections, “the Law,” “the Prophets” and “Psalms.” (Luke 24:44) Commands that came through the prophets were also binding upon Israel.

Jehovah was recognized in the Law as absolute Sovereign and was also King in a special way. Since Jehovah was both God and King of Israel, disobedience to the Law was both a religious offense and lese majesty, an offense against the Head of State, the King Jehovah. David and Solomon and their successors on the throne of Judah were said to sit on “Jehovah’s throne.” (1 Chron. 29:23) Human kings and rulers in Israel were bound by the Law, and when they became despotic they were law violators accountable to God. (1 Sam. 15:22, 23) Kingship and priesthood were separate, this constituting a balance of power and a safeguard against tyranny. It kept the Israelites ever mindful that Jehovah was their God and real King. Each individual’s relationship to God and to his fellowman was defined by the Law and each individual could approach God through the priestly arrangement.

Under the Law the Israelites could have become a “kingdom of priests and a holy nation.” (Ex. 19:5, 6) The Law’s demands of exclusive devotion to Jehovah, its absolute prohibition of any form of interfaith, and its regulations concerning religious cleanness and diet constituted a ‘wall of separation’ to keep the nation outstandingly separate from other nations. (Eph. 2:14) A Jew could hardly enter a Gentile tent or house or eat with Gentiles without becoming religiously unclean. In fact, when Jesus was on earth, even entering a Gentile house or building was thought to make a Jew unclean. (John 18:28; Acts 10:28) The sanctity of life and the dignity and honor of the family, of marriage, of person, were protected. (See accompanying outline on Law covenant.) Additional effects, that could be considered incidental to the religious separation that the Law covenant accomplished, were the health benefits and protections from diseases common to the nations around the Israelites. The laws of moral cleanness, physical sanitation and diet undoubtedly had a very salutary effect when they were obeyed.

But the real purpose of the Law was, as stated by the apostle Paul, “to make transgressions manifest, until the seed should arrive.” It was a “tutor leading to Christ.” It pointed to Christ as the objective aimed at (“Christ is the end of the Law”). It revealed that all humans, including the Jews, are under sin and that life cannot be obtained by “works of law.” (Gal. 3:19-24; Rom. 3:20; 10:4) It was “spiritual,” from God, and “holy.” (Rom. 7:12, 14) At Ephesians 2:15 it is called the “Law of commandments consisting in decrees.” It was a standard of perfection, marking the one who could keep it as perfect, worthy of life. (Lev. 18:5; Gal. 3:12) Since imperfect humans could not keep the Law, it showed that “all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God.” (Rom. 3:23) Only Jesus Christ kept it blamelessly.—John 8:46; Heb. 7:26.

The Law also served as having “a shadow of the good things to come,” and things connected with it were “typical representations,” causing Jesus and the apostles to call often upon it to explain heavenly things and matters concerning Christian doctrine and conduct. It, therefore, provides an essential and necessary field of study for the Christian.—Heb. 10:1; 9:23.

Jesus said that the whole Law hung upon the two commandments to love God and to love one’s neighbor. (Matt. 22:35-40) It is interesting that in the book of Deuteronomy (where the Law was modified somewhat to govern Israel’s new circumstances upon settling in the Promised Land) the Hebrew words for “love,” “loved,” and so forth, appear more than twenty times.

The Ten Words (Ex. 34:28), or the Ten Commandments, were the basic part of the Law, but were combined with about six hundred other laws, all of which were of equal force and binding power upon the Israelites. (Jas. 2:10) The first four of the Ten Commandments defined man’s relationship to God; the fifth, to God and to parents; and the last five, to one’s fellowman. These last five were named in apparent order of severity of harm done to one’s fellowman: murder, adultery, stealing, bearing false witness and covetousness or selfish desire. The Tenth Commandment makes the Law unique in comparison with the laws of all other nations in that it prohibits selfish desire, a command in reality enforceable only by God. It actually got at the cause of violation of all the other commandments.—Ex. 20:2-17; Deut. 5:6-21; compare Ephesians 5:5; Colossians 3:5; James 1:14, 15; 1 John 2:15-17.

The Law contained many principles and guiding statutes. But the judges were given latitude to investigate and consider motives and attitude of violators, along with the circumstances surrounding the violation. A deliberate, disrespectful or unrepentant violator received the full penalty. (Num. 15:30, 31) In other cases a lighter judgment might be determined. For example, whereas a murderer was to be put to death without fail, an accidental manslayer could receive mercy. (Num. 35:15, 16) One whose habitually goring bull killed a man might die; or the judges might impose a ransom. (Ex. 21:29-32) The difference between a deliberate thief and a voluntarily confessing wrongdoer evidently accounts for the difference in penalty stated at Exodus 22:7 and that of Leviticus 6:1-7.—See accompanying outline.

LAW OF CONSCIENCE

The Bible shows this results from persons having ‘the law written in their hearts.’ Those not under a direct law from God, such as the Law given through Moses, are shown to be “a law to themselves,” for their consciences cause them to be “accused or even excused” in their own thoughts. (Rom. 2:14, 15) Many just laws in pagan societies reflect this conscience, originally placed in their forefather Adam, and passed down through Noah.

At 1 Corinthians 8:7 the apostle Paul says that lack of accurate Christian knowledge could result in a weak conscience. Conscience can be a good guide or a poor one, depending upon the knowledge and training of the individual. (1 Tim. 1:5; Heb. 5:14) One’s conscience can be defiled and, therefore, misleading. (Titus 1:15) Some, by constantly going contrary to conscience, cause it to become like insensitive scar tissue, and consequently no safe law to follow.—1 Tim. 4:1, 2.

“LAW OF THE CHRIST”

Paul wrote: “Go on carrying the burdens of one another, and thus fulfill the law of the Christ.” (Gal. 6:2) While the Law covenant was terminated at Pentecost, 33 C.E. (“since the priesthood is being changed, there comes to be of necessity a change also of the law” [Heb. 7:12]), Christians come “under law toward Christ.” (1 Cor. 9:21) This law is called the “perfect law that belongs to freedom,” “the law of a free people,” “the law of faith.” (Jas. 1:25; 2:12; Rom. 3:27) Such new law had been foretold by God through the prophet Jeremiah when he spoke of a new covenant and a writing of his law on the hearts of his people.—Jer. 31:31-34; Heb. 8:6-13.

Like Moses, the mediator of the Law covenant, Jesus Christ is Mediator of the new covenant. Moses wrote the Law in code form, but Jesus did not personally put a law down in writing. He talked and put his law into the minds and hearts of his disciples. Neither did his disciples set down laws in the form of a code for Christians, classifying the laws into categories and subheadings. Nonetheless, the Christian Greek Scriptures are full of laws, commands and decrees that the Christian is bound to observe.—Rev. 14:12; 1 John 5:2, 3; 4:21; 3:22-24; 2 John 4-6; John 13:34, 35; 14:15; 15:14.

Jesus gave instruction to his disciples to preach the ‘good news of the kingdom.’ His command is found at Matthew 10:1-42; Luke 9:1-6; 10:1-12. At Matthew 28:18-20 a new command was given to Jesus’ disciples to go, not to the Jews only, but to all nations, to make disciples and baptize them with a new baptism “in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the holy spirit, teaching them to observe all the things I have commanded you.” Thus, with divine authorization Jesus taught and issued commands while on earth (Acts 1:1, 2) as well as after his resurrection. (Acts 9:5, 6; Rev. 1:1-3) The entire book of Revelation consists of prophecies, commands, admonition and instruction to the Christian congregation.

The “law of the Christ” covers the whole course and scope of the Christian’s life and work. By the help of God’s spirit the Christian can follow the commands so as to be judged favorably by that law, for it is “the law of that spirit which gives life in union with Christ Jesus.”—Rom. 8:2, 4.

“LAW OF GOD”

The apostle Paul speaks of the Christian’s fight as influenced by two factors, the “law of God,” the “law of my mind” or the “law of that spirit which gives life” on one side, and “sin’s law” or the “law of sin and of death” on the other. Paul describes the conflict, saying that fallen flesh infected with sin is enslaved to “sin’s law.” “The minding of the flesh means death,” but “God, by sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh and concerning sin, condemned sin in the flesh.” By God’s spirit the Christian can win the fight—by exercising faith in Christ, putting to death the practices of the body and living according to the spirit’s direction—and can gain life.—Rom. 7:21–8:13.

LAW OF SIN AND DEATH

The apostle Paul argues that, because of the sin of mankind’s father Adam, “death ruled as king” from Adam to the time of Moses (when the Law was given), and that the Law made transgressions manifest, making men chargeable with sin. (Rom. 5:12-14; Gal. 3:19) This rule or law of sin working in imperfect flesh exercises power over it, making it incline toward violation of God’s law. (Rom. 7:23; Gen. 8:21) Sin causes death. (Rom. 6:23; 1 Cor. 15:56) The law of Moses could not overcome the rule of kings sin and death, but freedom and victory come by means of the undeserved kindness of God through Jesus Christ.—Rom. 5:20, 21; 6:14; 7:8, 9, 24, 25.

“LAW OF FAITH”

The “law of faith” is contrasted with “that of works.” Man cannot attain to righteousness by his own works or those of the law of Moses, as though earning righteousness as pay for works, but righteousness comes by faith in Jesus Christ. (Rom. 3:27, 28; 4:4, 5; 9:30-32) James says, however, that such faith will be accompanied by works as a result of one’s faith and in harmony with it.—Jas. 2:17-26.

LAW OF HUSBAND

A married woman is under obligation to the “law of her husband.” (Rom. 7:2; 1 Cor. 7:39) The principle of husbandly headship holds true throughout the entire organization of God and has been in operation among those worshiping God, as well as among many other peoples. God occupies the position of a husband to his “woman,” the “Jerusalem above.” (Gal. 4:26, 31; Rev. 12:1, 4-6, 13-17) The Jewish national organization was in relationship of a wife to Jehovah as husband.—Isa. 54:5, 6; Jer. 31:32.

In patriarchal law the husband was the undisputed head of the family, the wife being in submission, though she could make recommendations subject to the husband’s approval. (Gen. 21:8-14) Sarah called Abraham “lord.” (Gen. 18:12; 1 Pet. 3:5, 6) A head covering was worn by the woman as a sign of her subjection to her husbandly head.—Gen. 24:65; 1 Cor. 11:5.

Under the Law given to Israel the wife was in subjection. Vows she made were subject to the husband to allow or annul. (Num. 30:6-16) She did not inherit, but went along with the land inheritance, and in the event that the inheritance was repurchased by a kinsman, she was included. (Ruth 4:5, 9-11) She could not divorce her husband, but the husband had the right to divorce his wife.—Deut. 24:1-4.

In the Christian arrangement, the woman is required to recognize the man’s position and not usurp it. The apostle Paul speaks of the married woman as being under the law of her husband as long as he is alive, but points out that she is freed by his death, so that she is not an adulteress if she then remarries.—Rom. 7:2, 3; 1 Cor. 7:39.

“KINGLY LAW”

The “kingly law” is that of the great King Jehovah. (Jas. 2:8) The tenor of the Law covenant was love, and “you must love your neighbor as yourself” was the second of the commandments on which all the Law and the Prophets hung. (Matt. 22:37-40) Christians, though not under the Law covenant, are subject to the law of the King Jehovah and his Son, the King Jesus Christ, under the new covenant.

SOME FEATURES OF THE LAW COVENANT

I. CIVIL GOVERNMENT

A. Jehovah God the Supreme Sovereign

1. The administrative, legislative and judicial Head of government and Head of religion (Isa. 33:22)

2. The one with sole right to delegate governmental authority (Dan. 4:25, 35; 7:13, 14)

3. “You must never have any other gods against my face,” that is, “in defiance of me” (Deut. 5:7; Ex. 20:3)

4. Idolatry forbidden (Ex. 20:4-6; Deut. 5:8-10)

a. Idolatry was lese majesty, treason against the sovereign power of the state, rebellion (Ex. 22:20; Deut. 8:19)

b. Names of other gods not to be mentioned (Ex. 23:13)

c. No form of God seen by Israelites to copy (Deut. 4:15-20)

B. Practices of false worship forbidden

1. Cutting sidelocks short, or cutting off extremity of beard (Lev. 19:27)

2. Making cuts in flesh for the dead (Lev. 19:28)

3. Tattooing bodies (Lev. 19:28)

4. Making baldness on oneself for the dead (Deut. 14:1) (The four preceding acts were practices of pagan religions.) (Jer. 48:36, 37)

5. Planting tree as sacred pole near altar of Jehovah (Deut. 16:21)

6. Stone figures, images, sacred high places of Canaanites not to be preserved (Num. 33:51, 52; Deut. 7:25)

7. Bringing things detestable, devoted to destruction, into one’s house (Deut. 7:26; 13:17)

8. Speaking of revolt against Jehovah as false prophet (Deut. 13:5)

9. Advocating false worship by anyone, to bring death penalty (Deut. 13:6-10; 17:2-7)

10. Cities going over to false worship; to be destroyed (Nothing of the city to be taken; all to be burned, except that gold, silver, copper, iron, were to be given to treasure of Jehovah’s sanctuary.) (Deut. 13:12-16; Josh. 6:19, 24)

11. Devoting of offspring to other gods, to be punished by death (Lev. 18:21, 29)

12. Practicing interfaith

a. No covenant permitted with pagan gods or nations of Canaan (Ex. 23:32; 34-12)

b. Not to go by statutes of Egypt or Canaan (Lev. 18:3-5)

C. Rulers in Israel

1. King to be chosen by Jehovah, not elected; could not be foreigner (Deut. 17:15)

a. Not to increase horses (Deut. 17:16)

b. Not to multiply wives nor increase silver and gold (Deut. 17:17)

c. To write a personal copy of Jehovah’s law and read in it every day (Deut. 17:18, 19)

2. Inferior officers

a. Chieftains of tribes (Num. 1:4, 16, 44)

b. Officers, chiefs of thousands and of hundreds (Num. 31:14)

c. Other chiefs over fifties and over tens (Ex. 18:21, 25)

3. Rulers to be respected (Ex. 22:28)

D. Census taken by Moses at Jehovah’s command (Num. 1:1-3; 3:14, 15; 4:1-3; 26:2)

1. All men twenty years old and upward taxed one-half shekel when census taken after coming out of Egypt. (Ex. 30:11-16) Though it may have been done, there is no record of its being commanded by Jehovah at other times

E. Membership in the congregation of Israel—including enjoying privileges and obligations enjoined on Israelites, entering temple precincts, partaking of passover, etc.

1. All male Jews entitled to citizenship, with following exceptions:

a. No man castrated by crushing testicles or having male member cut off (Deut. 23:1)

b. Neither an illegitimate son nor his descendants to tenth generation (Deut. 23:2)

2. No Ammonite or Moabite man to time indefinite, because they would not extend hospitality but opposed Israel upon exodus from Egypt (Deut. 23:3-6)

3. Edomites not to be detested

4. Egyptians of third generation of those who had lived as foreign residents in Israel could be admitted (Deut. 23:7, 8)

F. Aliens

1. Three kinds of these

a. The circumcised alien resident

b. The uncircumcised alien resident or settler in the land (Lev. 25:47)

c. The uncircumcised foreigner passing through or temporarily residing in the land (Deut. 15:3)

2. Such were not to be mistreated (Ex. 22:21; 23:9; Lev. 19:33, 34; Deut. 24:17)

3. Circumcised alien resident to observe Passover (Ex. 12:48, 49; Num. 9:14); must offer up sacrifices (Num. 15:14-16)

4. Aliens could not own Hebrew slaves permanently; Israelites were Jehovah’s slaves, on God’s land that he had assigned to them (Lev. 25:47-49, 55)

5. Release from being pressed for payment of debt on the seventh year did not apply to foreigners (Deut. 15:1-3); could also be made to pay interest (Deut. 23:20)

6. A dead animal might be given or sold to the uncircumcised alien resident or the foreigner, for such were not worshipers of Jehovah;