innocent from sin was thereby “stopped and all the world [became] liable to God for punishment.” This was so because the imperfect flesh they inherited from Adam made it impossible for them to be declared righteous before God by works of law, “for by law is the accurate knowledge of sin.” (Rom. 3:19, 20; Gal. 3:16) The Law spelled out clearly what the full range and scope of sin was, so that, in effect, it caused trespassing and sin to “abound,” in that so many acts and even attitudes were now identified as sinful. (Rom. 5:20; 7:7, 8; Gal. 3:19; compare Psalm 40:12.) Its sacrifices continually served to remind those under the Law of their sinful state. (Heb. 10:1-4, 11) The Law by these means acted as a tutor to lead them to Christ, that they “might be declared righteous due to faith.”—Gal. 3:22-25.

Sin receives “inducement through the commandment”

As already seen, the apostle personifies sin, representing it as a “king” who wars to exercise mastery over persons and make them its slaves, as well as slaves of death, also personified as a “king.” This doubtless is the key to understanding Paul’s statements at Romans 7:5, 8-11. He refers to the “sinful passions that were excited by the Law [which] were at work in our members that we should bring forth fruit to death.” Then, using himself as an example, he speaks of sin’s “receiving an inducement through the commandment [specifically, the commandment against coveting],” and working out in Paul every sort of covetousness, thereby seducing him and killing him through that commandment.

The apostle evidently is here saying that, by the way the Law identified and exposed sinful acts, “King Sin” could now point to Paul’s covetous thoughts or acts and legally label them as the “king’s” own works or fruitage, legal evidence of the mastery of “King Sin” over Paul; thereby “King Sin” could lay legal claim to Paul (or any other person similarly under the Law) as his slave, under his “law” (Rom. 7:23), subject to his ‘pay’ (Rom. 6:23), and thereupon turn him over to the rule of “King Death,” sin’s inseparable associate. (Compare Romans 6:16.) Paul then says (according to The Jerusalem Bible translation): “The Law is sacred, and what it commands is sacred, just and good. Does that mean that something good killed me? Of course not. But sin, to show itself in its true colours, used that good thing to kill me; and thus sin, thanks to the commandment, was able to exercise all its sinful power.”—Rom. 7:12, 13; compare 1 Corinthians 15:56.

The answer to the question, “Is the Law sin?” is therefore definitely “No!” (Rom. 7:7) The Law did not ‘miss the mark’ by failing the purpose for which God gave it, but, rather, scored a ‘bull’s-eye,’ not only in being good and beneficial as a protective guide, but also in legally establishing that all persons, the Israelites not excepted, were sinners in need of redemption by God, pointing the Israelites to Christ as the needed Redeemer.

ERRORS, TRANSGRESSIONS, TRESPASSES

The Scriptures frequently link “error” (Heb., ʽa·wonʹ [“iniquity,” AV, RS]), “transgression” (Heb., peʹshaʽ; Gr., pa·raʹba·sis), “trespass” (Gr., pa·raʹpto·ma), and other such terms, with “sin” (Heb., hhat·taʼthʹ; Gr., ha·mar·tiʹa). All such related terms present specific aspects of sin, forms that it takes.

Errors, mistakes and foolishness

Thus, ʽa·wonʹ basically relates to erring, acting crookedly or wrongly. It is committing “iniquity” in the sense this English word has of ‘that which is unequal (inequity), hence unbalanced or uneven as to what is just and proper.’ The Hebrew term refers to a moral error or wrong, a distortion of what is right. (Job 10:6, 14, 15) Those not submitting to God’s will obviously are not guided by his perfect wisdom and justice, hence are bound to err. (Compare Isaiah 59:1-3; Jeremiah 14:10; Philippians 2:15.) Doubtless because sin causes man thus to be ‘off balance,’ ‘off center,’ bringing perversion of what is upright (Job 33:27; Hab. 1:4), ʽa·wonʹ is the Hebrew term most frequently linked with or used in parallel with hhat·taʼthʹ (“sin,” “missing the mark”). (Ex. 34:9; Deut. 19:15; Neh. 4:5; Ps. 32:5; 85:2; Isa. 27:9) This imbalance produces confusion and disharmony within man and difficulties in his dealings with God and with the rest of God’s creation.

The “error” (ʽa·wonʹ) may be intentional or unintentional, either a conscious deviation from what is right or an unknowing act, a “mistake” (sh^egha·ghahʹ), which, nevertheless, brings the person into error and guilt before God. (Lev. 4:13-35; 5:1-6, 14-19; Num. 15:22-29; Ps. 19:12, 13) If intentional, then, of course, the error was of far graver consequence than if by mistake. (Num. 15:30, 31; compare Lamentations 4:6, 13, 22.) Error is contrary to truth, and those willfully sinning pervert the truth, a course which only brings forth grosser sin. (Compare Isaiah 5:18-23.) The writer to the Hebrews speaks of the “deceptive power of sin,” which has a hardening effect on human hearts. (Heb. 3:13-15; compare Exodus 9:27, 34, 35.) The same writer, in quoting from Jeremiah 31:34 (where the Hebrew original spoke of Israel’s “error” and “sin”), wrote ha·mar·tiʹa (“sin”) and a·di·kiʹa (“unrighteousness”) at Hebrews 8:12, and ha·mar·ti’a and a·no·miʹa (“lawlessness”) at Hebrews 10:17.

Proverbs 24:9 states that “the loose conduct of foolishness is sin,” and Hebrew terms conveying the idea of foolishness are often used in connection with sinning, the sinner at times repentantly acknowledging, “I have acted foolishly.” (1 Sam. 26:21; 2 Sam. 24:10, 17) Undisciplined by God, the sinner gets tangled up in his errors and foolishly goes astray.—Prov. 5:22, 23; compare 19:3.

Transgression, an “overstepping”

Sin may take the form of a “transgression.” The Greek pa·raʹba·sis (“transgression”) refers basically to an “overstepping,” that is, going beyond certain limits or boundaries, especially as in breaking a law. Matthew uses the verb form (pa·ra·baiʹno) in recounting the question of the Pharisees and scribes as to why Jesus’ disciples ‘overstepped the tradition of men of former times,’ and Jesus’ counterquestion as to why these opposers ‘overstepped the commandment of God because of their tradition,’ by which they made God’s word invalid. (Matt. 15:1-6) It also can mean a ‘stepping aside,’ as in Judas’ ‘deviating’ from his ministry and apostleship. (Acts 1:25) In some Greek texts the same verb is used when referring to one who “goes beyond, and does not abide in the doctrine of the Anointed one.”—2 John 9, ED.

In the Hebrew Scriptures there are similar references to sinning by persons who “overstepped,” ‘sidestepped,’ ‘bypassed,’ or ‘passed beyond’ (Heb., ʽa·varʹ) God’s covenant or specific orders.—Num. 14:41; Deut. 17:2, 3; Josh. 7:11, 15; 1 Sam. 15:24; Isa. 24:5; Jer. 34:18.

The apostle Paul shows the special connection of pa·raʹba·sis with violation of established law in saying that “where there is no law, neither is there any transgression.” (Rom. 4:15) Hence, in the absence of law the sinner would not be called a “transgressor.” Consistently, Paul and the other Christian writers use pa·raʹba·sis (and pa·ra·baʹtes, “transgressor”) in the context of law. (Compare Romans 2:23-27; Galatians 2:16, 18; 3:19; James 2:9, 11.) Adam, having received a direct command from God, was therefore guilty of “transgression” of stated law. (His wife, though deceived, was also guilty of transgression of that law [1 Tim. 2:14].) The Law covenant spoken to Moses by angels was added to the Abrahamic covenant “to make transgressions manifest,” that ‘all things together might be delivered up to the custody of sin,’ legally convicting all of Adam’s descendants, Israel included, of sin, and demonstrating that all clearly needed forgiveness and salvation through faith in Christ Jesus. (Gal. 3:19-22) Thus, if Paul had put himself back under the Mosaic law, he would have made himself a “transgressor” again of that Law, subject to its condemnation, and would thereby “shove aside the undeserved kindness of God” that provided release from that condemnation.—Gal. 2:18-21; compare 3:1-4, 10.

The Hebrew peʹshaʽ carries the idea of transgression (Ps. 51:3; Isa. 43:25-27; Jer. 33:8) as well as that of “revolt,” which is a turning away from or rejection of the law or authority of another. (1 Sam. 24:11; Job 13:23, 24; 34:37; Isa. 59:12, 13) Willful transgression, then, amounts to rebellion against God’s paternal rule and authority. It sets the will of the creature against that of the Creator and so he indulges in revolt against God’s sovereignty.

Trespass

The Greek pa·raʹpto·ma means, literally, “a fall beside,” hence a false step (Rom. 11:11, 12) or blunder, a “trespass.” (Eph. 1:7; Col. 2:13) Adam’s sin in eating of the forbidden fruit was a “transgression” in that he overstepped God’s law; it was a “trespass” in that he fell or made a false step instead of standing or walking upright in harmony with God’s righteous requirements and in support of his authority. The many statutes and requirements of the Law covenant in effect opened the way for many such trespasses due to the imperfection of those subject to it (Rom. 5:20); the nation of Israel as a whole blundered as to keeping that covenant. (Rom. 11:11, 12) Since all the various statutes of that Law were part of one covenant, the person making a “false step” in one point thereby became an offender and “transgressor” against the covenant as a whole and hence against all its statutes.—Jas. 2:10, 11.

“SINNERS”

Since “there is no man that does not sin” (2 Chron. 6:36), all of Adam’s descendants can properly be termed “sinners” by nature. But in the Scriptures “sinners” usually applies in a more specific way, designating those who practice sin or who have a reputation of sinning. As such, their sins have become public knowledge. (Luke 7:37-39) The Amalekites whom Jehovah ordered Saul to destroy are called “sinners” (1 Sam. 15:18), the psalmist prayed that God would not take away his soul “along with sinners,” his following words identifying such as “blood-guilty men, in whose hands there is loose conduct, and whose right hand is full of bribery.” (Ps. 26:9, 10; compare Proverbs 1:10-19.) Jesus was condemned by religious leaders for associating with “tax collectors and sinners,” and tax collectors were viewed by the Jews as a generally disreputable class. (Matt. 9:10, 11) Jesus referred to them along with harlots as preceding the Jewish religious leaders in entry into the kingdom. (Matt. 21:31, 32) Zacchaeus, a tax collector and a “sinner” in the eyes of many, acknowledged that he had illegally extorted money from others.—Luke 19:7, 8.

Hence, when Jesus said “there will be more joy in heaven over one sinner that repents than over ninety-nine righteous ones who have no need of repentance,” he was evidently using these terms in a relative sense (see RIGHTEOUSNESS [Goodness and Righteousness]), for all men are by nature sinners and none is righteous in the absolute sense.—Luke 15:7, 10; compare Luke 5:32; 13:2; see DECLARE RIGHTEOUS.

COMPARATIVE GRAVITY OF WRONGDOING

Although sin is sin, and in any case could justly make the guilty one worthy of sin’s “wages,” death, the Scriptures show that God views mankind’s wrongdoing as varying in degrees of gravity. Thus, the men of Sodom were “gross sinners against Jehovah,” and their sin was “very heavy.” (Gen. 13:13; 18:20; compare 2 Timothy 3:6, 7.) The Israelites’ making a golden calf was also called a “great sin” (Ex. 32:30, 31), and Jeroboam’s calf worship similarly caused those of the northern kingdom “to sin with a great sin.” (2 Ki. 17:16, 21) Judah’s sin became “like that of Sodom,” making the kingdom of Judah abhorrent in God’s eyes. (Isa. 1:4, 10; 3:9; Lam. 1:8; 4:6) Such a course of disregard for God’s will can make even one’s very prayer become a sin. (Ps. 109:7, 8, 14) Since sin is an affront to God’s own person, he is not indifferent to it, and as its gravity increases his indignation and wrath are understandably increased. (Rom. 1:18; Deut. 29:22-28; Job 42:7; Ps. 21:8, 9) His wrath, however, is not solely due to the involvement of his own person, but is likewise stirred by the injury and injustice done to humans and particularly his faithful servants.—Isa. 10:1-4; Mal. 2:13-16; 2 Thess. 1:6-10.

Human weakness and ignorance

Jehovah takes into account the weakness of imperfect men descended from Adam, so that those sincerely seeking Him can say, “He has not done to us even according to our sins; nor according to our errors has he brought upon us what we deserve.” The Scriptures show the wonderful mercy and loving-kindness that God has displayed in his patient dealings with men of flesh. (Ps. 103:2, 3, 10-18) He also takes into account ignorance as a contributory factor in sins (1 Tim. 1:13; compare Luke 12:47, 48), provided such ignorance is not willful. Those who willfully reject the knowledge and wisdom God offers, ‘taking pleasure in unrighteousness,’ are not excused. (2 Thess. 2:9-12; Prov. 1:22-33; Hos. 4:6-8) Some are temporarily misled from the truth but, with help, turn back (Jas. 5:19, 20), while others ‘shut their eyes to the light and forget their earlier cleansing from sins.’—2 Pet. 1:9.

Knowledge and the unforgivable sin

Thus knowledge brings greater responsibility. Pilate’s sin was not as great as that of the Jewish religious leaders who turned Jesus over to the governor, nor that of Judas, who betrayed his Lord. (John 19:11; 17:12) Jesus told Pharisees of his day that if they were blind, they would have no sin, evidently meaning that their sins could be forgiven by God on the basis of their ignorance; however, because they denied being in ignorance ‘their sin remained.’ (John 9:39-41) They and others had “no excuse for their sin,” because they were witnesses of the powerful words and works proceeding from Jesus as the result of God’s spirit on him. (John 15:22-24; Luke 4:18) Those who (either in word or by their course of action) willfully and knowingly blasphemed God’s spirit thus manifested would be “guilty of everlasting sin,” with no forgiveness possible. (Matt. 12:31, 32; Mark 3:28-30; compare John 15:26; 16:7, 8.) This could be the case with some who came to be Christians and then deliberately turned from God’s pure worship. Hebrews 10:26, 27 states that “if we practice sin willfully after having received the accurate knowledge of the truth, there is no longer any sacrifice for sins left, but there is a certain fearful expectation of judgment and there is a fiery jealousy that is going to consume those in opposition.”

At 1 John 5:16, 17, John evidently refers to willful, knowing sin in speaking of a “sin that does incur death” as contrasted with one that does not. (Compare Numbers 15:30.) Where the evidence indicates such willful, knowing sin, the Christian would not pray for the one so offending. God, of course, is the final Judge as to the heart attitude of the sinner, but in such cases the Christian does not risk having his prayer be in vain or be displeasing to God.—Compare Jeremiah 7:16; Matthew 5:44; Acts 7:60.

Single sin versus practice of sin

John also makes a distinction between a single sin and the practice of sinning as shown by a comparison of 1 John 2:1 and 3:4-8 as rendered in the New World Translation. As to the correctness of the rendering “everyone who practices sin [poi·onʹ ten ha·mar·tiʹan]” (1 John 3:4), Robertson’s Word Pictures in the New Testament (Vol. VI, p. 221) says: “The present active participle (poion) means the habit of doing sin.” As to verse 6, where the phrase oukh ha·mar·taʹnei is used in the Greek text, the same authority comments (p. 222): “Linear present . . . active indicative of hamartano, ‘does not keep on sinning.’” Thus, the faithful Christian may at some time lapse or fall into sin due to weakness or being misled, but he “does not carry on sin,” continuing to walk in it.—1 John 3:9, 10; compare 1 Corinthians 15:33, 34; 1 Timothy 5:20.

Sharing in the sins of others

One can become guilty of sin before God by his willing association with wrongdoers and/or approval of their wrongdoing. (Compare Psalm 50:18, 21.) Those who stay in the symbolic city “Babylon the great” therefore also “receive part of her plagues.” (Rev. 18:2, 4-8) A Christian associating with, or even bidding “farewell” to one who abandons the teaching of the Christ becomes a “sharer in his wicked works.”—2 John 9-11; compare Titus 3:10, 11.

Timothy was warned by Paul against being “a sharer in the sins of others.” (1 Tim. 5:22) Paul’s preceding words as to ‘never laying hands hastily upon any man’ must refer to the authority granted Timothy to appoint “older men” or “overseers” in congregations. He was not to appoint a newly converted man, for such one might get puffed up with pride; if Timothy failed to heed this counsel he would reasonably bear a measure of the responsibility for whatever wrongs such one might commit.—1 Tim. 3:6.

An entire nation could become guilty of sin before God on the basis of the above principles.—Prov. 14:34.

SINS AGAINST MEN AND AGAINST GOD AND CHRIST

As shown earlier, the Hebrew Scriptures record references to sin by men of different nations during the patriarchal period. Mainly these related to sins against other humans.

Since God alone is the standard of righteousness and goodness, sins committed against humans are not failures to conform to such persons’ ‘image and likeness,’ but are a failure to respect or care for their rightful and proper interests, thus committing offense against them, causing them unjust damage. (Judg. 11:12, 13, 27; 1 Sam. 19:4, 5; 20:1; 26:21; Jer. 37:18; 2 Cor. 11:7) Jesus set forth the guiding principles to follow when observing another sinning. (Matt. 18:15-17) Even though one’s brother sinned against him seventy-seven times or seven times in a single day, such offender was to be forgiven if, upon being rebuked, he showed repentance. (Matt. 18:21, 22; Luke 17:3, 4; compare 1 Peter 4:8.) Peter speaks of house servants being slapped for sins committed against their owners. (1 Pet. 2:18-20) One can sin against constituted authority by failing to show it due respect. Paul declared himself innocent of any sin “against the Law of the Jews [or] against the temple [or] against Caesar.”—Acts 25:8.

Sins against humans, nevertheless, are also sins against the Creator, to whom men must make an accounting. (Rom. 14:10, 12; Eph. 6:5-9; Heb. 13:17) God, who held Abimelech back from having relations with Sarah, told the Philistine king, “I was also holding you back from sinning against me.” (Gen. 20:1-7) Joseph likewise recognized that adultery was a sin against the Creator of male and female and the Former of the marriage union (Gen. 39:7-9), as did King David. (2 Sam. 12:13; Ps. 51:4) Such sins as robbery, defrauding or embezzlement of another’s property are classified in the Law as ‘unfaithful behavior toward Jehovah.’ (Lev. 6:2-4; Num. 5:6-8) Those hardening their hearts and being closefisted toward their poor brothers and those withholding men’s wages were subject to divine reproval. (Deut. 15:7-10; 24:14, 15; compare Proverbs 14:31; Amos 5:12.) Samuel declared it “unthinkable, on my part, to sin against Jehovah by ceasing to pray” on behalf of his fellow Israelites and at their request.—1 Sam. 12:19-23.

Similarly, James 2:1-9 condemns as sin the showing of favoritism or the making of class distinctions among Christians. Paul says that those paying no heed to the weak consciences of their brothers and thus causing such to stumble are “sinning against Christ,” God’s Son who gave his own lifeblood for his followers.—1 Cor. 8:10-13.

Thus, while all sins in reality are sins against God, Jehovah views some sins as more directly against his own person, sins such as idolatry (Ex. 20:2-5; 2 Ki. 22:17), faithlessness (Rom. 14:22, 23; Heb. 10:37, 38; 12:1), disrespect for sacred things (Num. 18:22, 23), and all forms of false worship. (Hos. 8:11-14) This is doubtless why priest Eli told his sons, who disrespected God’s tabernacle and service, that “if a man should sin against a man, God will arbitrate for him [compare 1 Kings 8:31, 32]; but if it is against Jehovah that a man should sin, who is there to pray for him?”—1 Sam. 2:22-25; compare vss. 12-17.

Sinning against one’s own body

In warning against fornication, Paul states that “every other sin that a man may commit is outside his body, but he that practices fornication is sinning against his own body.” (1 Cor. 6:18) Fornication in the broad sense may also include adultery. (See FORNICATION.) The context shows that Paul had been emphasizing that Christians were to be united with their Lord and Head, Christ Jesus. (Vss. 13-15) The fornicator wrongly and sinfully becomes one flesh with the other person (often a harlot). (Vss. 16-18) Since no other sin can thus separate the body of the Christian from union with Christ and make it “one” with another, this is evidently why all other sins are here viewed as ‘outside one’s body.’ Fornication can also result in incurable damage to the fornicator’s own body.

SINS BY ANGELS

Since God’s spirit sons are also to reflect God’s glory and bring praise to him, carrying out his will (Ps. 148:1, 2; 103:20, 21), they can sin in the same basic sense as humans. Second Peter 2:4 shows that some of God’s spirit sons did sin, being “delivered [into] pits of dense darkness to be reserved for judgment.” First Peter 3:19, 20 evidently refers to the same situation in speaking of “the spirits in prison, who had once been disobedient when the patience of God was waiting in Noah’s days.” And Jude 6 indicates that the ‘missing of the mark’ or sinning of such spirit creatures was because they “did not keep their original position but forsook their own proper dwelling place,” that proper dwelling place logically referring to the heavens of God’s presence.

Since Jesus Christ’s sacrifice contains no provision for covering the sins of spirit creatures, there is no reason to believe that the sins of those disobedient angels were forgivable. (Heb. 2:14-17) Like Adam, they were perfect creatures with no inborn weakness to be considered as an extenuating factor in judging their wrongdoing.

REMISSION OF SINS

As shown in the article DECLARE RIGHTEOUS (How “counted” righteous) Jehovah God in effect ‘credits’ righteousness to the account of those living according to faith. In so doing, God correspondingly ‘covers over,’ ‘wipes out’ or ‘blots out’ the sins that would otherwise be charged up against the account of such faithful ones. (Compare Psalm 32:1, 2; Isaiah 44:22; Acts 3:19.) Jesus, thus, likened “trespasses” and “sins” to ‘debts.’ (Compare Matthew 6:14; 18:21-35; Luke 11:4.) Though their sins were as scarlet, Jehovah ‘washes away’ the stain that makes them unholy. (Isa. 1:18; Acts 22:16) The means by which God can thus express his tender mercy and loving-kindness while yet maintaining his perfect justice and righteousness is considered under RANSOM; RECONCILIATION; REPENTANCE and related articles.

AVOIDANCE OF SIN

Love of God and love of neighbor is a principal means for avoiding sin, which is lawlessness, for love is an outstanding quality of God; he made love the foundation of his Law to Israel. (Matt. 22:37-40; Rom. 13:8-11) In this way the Christian can be, not alienated from God, but in joyful union with him and his Son. (1 John 1:3; 3:1-11, 24; 4:16) Such are open to the guidance of God’s holy spirit and can “live as to the spirit from the standpoint of God,” desisting from sins (1 Pet. 4:1-6) and producing the righteous fruitage of God’s spirit in place of the wicked fruitage of the sinful flesh. (Gal. 5:16-26) They can thus gain freedom from sin’s mastery.—Rom. 6:12-22.

Having faith in God’s sure reward for righteousness (Heb. 11:1, 6), one can resist the call of sin to share its temporary enjoyment. (Heb. 11:24-26) Knowing the inescapability of the rule that “whatever a man is sowing, this he will also reap,” since “God is not one to be mocked,” the person is protected against the deceitfulness of sin. (Gal. 6:7, 8) He realizes that sins cannot remain forever hid (1 Tim. 5:24) and that “although a sinner may be doing bad a hundred times and continuing a long time as he pleases,” yet it will “turn out well with those fearing the true God,” but not with the wicked one who is not in fear of God. (Eccl. 8:11-13; compare Numbers 32:23; Proverbs 23:17, 18.) Any material riches the wicked have gained will buy them no protection from God (Zeph. 1:17, 18), and, indeed, in time the sinner’s wealth will prove to be “something treasured up for the righteous one.” (Prov. 13:21, 22; Eccl. 2:26) Those who pursue righteousness by faith can avoid carrying the “heavy load,” the loss of peace of mind and heart, the weakness of spiritual sickness, that sin brings.—Ps. 38:3-6, 18; 41:4.

Knowledge of God’s word is the basis for such faith and the means of fortifying it. (Ps. 119:11; compare 106:7.) The person who moves hastily without first seeking knowledge as to his path will ‘miss the mark,’ sinning. (Prov. 19:2) Realizing that “one sinner can destroy much good” causes the righteous person to seek to act with genuine wisdom. (Compare Ecclesiastes 9:18; 10:1-4.) It is the wise course to avoid bad associations with those practicing false worship or immorally inclined persons, for these entrap one in sin and spoil useful habits.—Ex. 23:33; Neh. 13:25, 26; Ps. 26:9-11; Prov. 1:10-19; Eccl. 7:26; 1 Cor. 15:33, 34.

There are, of course, many things that can be done or not done, or that can be done one way or another, without any condemnation of sin. (Compare 1 Corinthians 7:27, 28.) God did not hem man in with multitudinous instructions governing minute details as to how things were to be done. Clearly, man was to use his intelligence and also had ample latitude to display his individual personality and preferences. The Law covenant contained many statutes; yet even this did not rob men of their freedom of personal expression. Christianity, with its strong emphasis on love of God and neighbor as the guiding rule, similarly allows men the widest possible freedom that the righteous-hearted person could desire.—Compare Matthew 22:37-40; Romans 8:21; see FREEDOM; JEHOVAH (A God of moral standards), page 890.

SIN, II

The name of a wilderness on the Sinai Peninsula and of an Egyptian city.

1. A wilderness region to which the Israelite camp, approximately one month after their exodus from Egypt, transferred after leaving Elim and a campsite by the Red Sea. After this wilderness there were several more camping sites, including Dophkah, Alush, and Rephidim, before coming to Sinai. (Ex. 16:1; 17:1; Num. 33:9-15) It was in the wilderness of Sin that murmuring and complaints arose in the camp because of the lack of meat. Here Jehovah caused a flock of quail to “cover the camp,” and here the Israelites ate manna for the first time. It was also at this point that the sabbath law was put into effect.—Ex. 16:2-30.

The exact location of the wilderness of Sin is uncertain, though it is obviously along the southwestern border of the Sinai Peninsula. Geographers generally favor the sandy tract known as Debbet er-Ramleh, lying along the foot of the Sinai plateau. This desert plain is also near the suggested site of Dophkah.

2. Sin was among the cities of Egypt due to feel the sword brought on that land by the hand of Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar. (Ezek. 30:6, 10, 15, 16) It is called the “fortress of Egypt.” Some connect the name with the Egyptian sinw, or swn, meaning “fortress,” while others relate it to a similar-sounding word (sin), meaning “mud” or “clay.” Most authorities today accept the identification found in the Latin Vulgate, namely, Pelusium (meaning “mudcity”). Pelusium was an ancient fortress city situated in a key defense position against invasion from the Asiatic continent. Its location is generally accepted to coincide with present-day Tell el Farama, a site about twenty miles (c. 32 kilometers) SE of Port Said on the Mediterranean seacoast. Caravans or armies coming down the Philistine coast thus found this fortress guarding the entrance to Egypt. Assyrian King Ashurbanipal refers to it in his annals. Today the ancient site is surrounded by sand and marshes.

SIN

or Shin [ש].

The twenty-first letter in the Hebrew alphabet, later, outside the Hebrew Scriptures, used also as a number to denote three hundred.

This letter was used to represent two sounds, and, in later periods, these were distinguished by the use of a diacritical mark. A dot placed over the left-hand “horn” [שׂ] gave the pronunciation of “s,” while a dot placed over the right-hand “horn” [שׁ] gave the pronunciation of “sh.”

In the Hebrew, each of the eight verses of Psalm 119:161-168 begins with this letter.

SINAI

(Siʹnai).

1. A mountain in Arabia (Gal. 4:25), apparently also called Horeb. (Compare Exodus 3:2, 12; 19:1, 2, 10, 11; see HOREB.) In the vicinity of Mount Sinai the Israelites and a vast mixed company, with numerous flocks and herds, encamped for nearly a year. (Ex. 12:37, 38; 19:1; Num. 10:11, 12) Besides accommodating so great a camp, numbering perhaps over three million persons, the area around Mount Sinai also furnished sufficient water and pasturage for the domestic animals. At least one torrent descended from the mountain. (Deut. 9:21) Evidently at the base of Mount Sinai there was an area large enough for the Israelites to assemble and to observe the phenomena on the mountaintop. In fact, they could withdraw and stand at a distance. Even from the camp itself the top of Mount Sinai was visible. (Ex. 19:17, 18; 20:18; 24:17; compare Deuteronomy 5:30.) Bounds set around the mountain served to prevent both the people and their animals from touching the mountain.—Ex. 19:12, 13; compare Exodus 34:3.

IDENTIFICATION

The exact location of Mount Sinai or Horeb is uncertain. Tradition links it with a red granite ridge centrally situated in the southern part of the Sinai Peninsula between the two northern arms of the Red Sea. This ridge measures approximately two miles (3 kilometers) from NW to SE and has two peaks, Ras es-Safsaf and Jebel Musa. The area in