Fango—Ɔkwan Bɛn na Yɛfa So Nya?

“ƐNYƐ hann!” Wɔ afeha a ɛto so 19 mu wɔ United States no, na wohia kanea foforo a nnipa ayɛ de asi kanea a wɔde anwa, bonsu srade, ne nneɛma foforo sɔ a na ɛbobɔ n’ani a ne sɔ yɛ den no ananmu. Na dɛn ne ano aduru? Fango! Ɛhe na na wobenya bi?

Wɔ 1859 mu no, Edwin L. Drake a na ɔyɛ keteke kwan so kwankyerɛfo a wakɔ pɛnhyen de owisihyɛn dedaw bi tuu abura bi a emu dɔ yɛ mita 22 de nyaa fango a edi kan koraa wɔ beae bi a ɛbɛn Titusville, Pennsylvania, U.S.A. Saa bere no na fango ho adwumayɛ sɔree. Fango a wohui wɔ wiase mmeae pii no de ɔhaw kɛse baa sikasɛm ne amammuisɛm mu. Ɛbɛdaa adi sɛ na fango ne ade a wɔnam so benya kanea a ɛhyerɛn yiye a na nnipa nyinaa de ahopere rehwɛ kwan no.

Ankyɛ na nsasetɔ ne abura a wotutu no anibere so bɛyɛɛ adwuma titiriw wɔ mmeae titiriw a wotu fango wɔ United States no. Wɔ saa mfe no mu no, na ɛnyɛ den sɛ wobɛte sɛ nnipa bi anya wɔn ho prɛko pɛ na afoforo nso ahwere wɔn ahode nyinaa akyiri yi. Awerɛhosɛm ne sɛ, Edwin Drake, onipa a odii kan tuu fango wɔ Pennsylvania no hweree n’ahode nyinaa.

Ɛmfa ho sɛ na fango aguadi mu retrɛw ntɛmntɛm, anaasɛ bu a na abu so nti no, fango adwumakuw a ɛwɔ Pennsylvania no fango bo so tewee koraa sen bere biara a na atwam. Fango ankora biako bo so tew fii dɔla 20 beduu sɛnt 10! Fango a wotuu no pii a na wosusuw sɛ wobenya so mfaso no maa ne bo so tewee koraa, na fango a na ɛwɔ abura a wɔatutu no bi mu ase tui ntɛm. Nea ɛma yɛkae saa bere no titiriw ne Pithole Kuropɔn a ɛwɔ Pennsylvania, a ɛnnɛ adan amamfo no. Wɔkyekyee kurow no, ɛtrɛwee, na egui—bɛyɛ afe ne fã akyi. Na ɔhaw ahorow a ɛte saa no bɛyɛ ade a ɛrempa fango ho abakɔsɛm mu.

Wɔ 1870 mu no, John D. Rockefeller ne ne mfɛfo kakraa bi kaa wɔn ti pam ho tew Standard Oil Company. Saa adwumakuw yi dii akoten wɔ krasin aguadi mu kosii sɛ nnwumakuw bi nso sɔree, titiriw wɔ mmeae a na wotu fango wɔ Russia no. Wɔn a wobuebuee nnwumakuw no mu biako ne Marcus Samuel, nea ɔtew nea ɛnnɛ wɔfrɛ no Royal Dutch anaa Shell Group no. Bio nso, esiane nyansam a Nobel anuanom fi yɛɛ ade nti,a wobuee fango adwuma kɛse bi wɔ Russia, na na wɔtwe fango no fi mmeae a wotu fango wɔ Baku.

Saa na fango adwuma ho abakɔsɛm no hyɛɛ ase. Efi saa bere no, wɔayeyɛ apam ne nhyehyɛe ahorow sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a fango dodow a wotu ne ne bo no nkɔ so nsakra sɛnea na ɛte mfiase no. Emu biako ne Aman a Wɔtɔn Fango Amannɔne Ahyehyɛde (OPEC), a wɔn mu 11 nsam na wiase nyinaa fango ankasa dodow no ara wɔ no.—Hwɛ adaka a ɛwɔ kratafã 7 no.

Fango Dodow Ahe na Aka, na Ɛwɔ He?

Ebeduu afeha a ɛto so 19 awiei no, na anyinam ahoɔden akanea a na ahyeta a wɔde di dwuma no betumi ama fango adwuma no agu. Nanso, wɔyɛɛ ade foforo a ɛda nsow maa tebea no sesae koraa—afiri a wɔde pɛtro gu mu ma ɛyɛ adwuma, a kar mu titiriw na wɔde hyɛ no. Seesei de na pɛtro a wonya fi fango mu no ho hia na kar atumi ayɛ adwuma, na eduu 1920 mfe no awiei no, na kar wɔ aman a wɔanya nkɔso dodow no ara mu. Afei de na wohia fango pii na wɔatumi de kar atu kwan, nanso ɛhe na na wobenya fango afi?

Bere rekɔ so no, mmeae foforo a wotu fango—bɛyɛ 50,000—a wɔakɔ so ahu no ama fango adi akoten wɔ wiase nyinaa aguadi mu! Nanso, wɔ fango tu mu no, ɛnyɛ mmeae dodow a wɔahu no ne ade a ɛho hia kɛse na mmom sɛnea ne kɛse te. N’akɛse te dɛn?

Anyɛ yiye koraa no, wotumi tu fango ankora ɔpepepem anum wɔ mmeae a ɛyɛ akɛse paa no, na nea edi ɛno akyi ne mmeae a wotumi nya anyɛ yiye koraa no fango ankora ɔpepem ahanum kosi ɔpepepem anum no. Ɛwom sɛ aman bɛyɛ 70 na “U.S. Abo ne Fango Mu Nhwehwɛmu a Wɔyɛɛ no Wiase Nyinaa wɔ 2000 Mu” no bobɔɔ din sɛ fango ahorow bi wɔ hɔ de, nanso emu kakraa bi na ɛyɛ akɛse paa. (Hwɛ adaka a ɛwɔ kratafã 7 no.) Mmeae a wotumi nya fango pii sen biara no wɔ Arabia ne Iran abotan mu, na mmeae a atwa Persia Faka ho ahyia no nso ka ho.

Wogu so ara rehwehwɛ mmeae foforo a wobenya fango a wonnyaee. Na mpo wɔnam mfiridwuma mu nimdeɛ a ɛkɔ anim so na ahyɛ mu den. Mprempren wɔn a wotu fango no de wɔn ani asi aman a ɛwɔ Caspian Po no mpɔtam hɔ, a ebi ne Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan ne Uzbekistan so. Sɛnea Asoɛe a Ɛhwɛ U.S. Fango Nsɛm So kyerɛ no, wobetumi anya fango ne gas pii wɔ saa beae yi. Wogu so ara rehwehwɛ akwan foforo a wɔbɛfa so de fango afa mmeae bi te sɛ Afghanistan akɔ amannɔne. Wɔahu mmeae foforo a wobetumi de fango afa wɔ Mediterranea Supɔw no so, Greenland ne Afrika mmeae bi. Hydrocarbon a ɛdan yɛ fango ne nneɛma a wɔde di dwuma wɔ da biara asetra mu no nso yɛ asɛm foforo.

Ɔkwan Bɛn So na Wotu Fango?

Abo ne asase ho animdefo ne wɔn a wosusuw nsase no hwehwɛ mmeae a wobetumi anya fango wɔ asase ase. Bere a wɔasusuw nneɛma pɔtee bi na wɔahu fango ho mpopoe akyi no, wotu fam de hwɛ hu sɛ ɛyɛ fango ankasa anaa. Tete no, sɛ wotu fam kɔto fango a, na atɛkyɛ ne fango a adi afra no tumi bɔ pete wɔn a wotu no ho, ma enti na fango a edi kan a wotu no tumi sɛe, na na ɛde ahoɔden pae ma ɛba asase ani. Nanso, nnwinnade a wɔde susuw ade ne ntuano atitiriw bi nti, mfiri a wɔde tu fango nnɛ no mma asiane yi nsi. Ɛnnɛ, wotumi tu amoa a emu sua na emu yɛ donkudonku nso.

Awiei koraa no, ahoɔden a ɛma fango ne gas puw ba asase ani no so tew, na nea ɛbɛyɛ na ɛmfa ahoɔden mpuw mma pii no, wɔde nsu, nnuru, mframa a wɔfrɛ no carbon dioxide ne nneɛma foforo bi te sɛ mframa a wɔfrɛ no nitrogen gu amoa no mu de fra fango no. Sɛnea fango mu duru te no betumi agyina beae a wotu no no so. Ɛyɛ nea fango ho adwumayɛfo ani gye fango a emu nyɛ duru pii ho, esiane sɛ ne tu nyɛ den na ɛho adwumayɛ nso nyɛ den.

Sɛnea Amerika Fango Asuae no kyerɛkyerɛɛ mu no, nnɛyi nyansahu mu nimdeɛ a wɔnam so tu fango no bi ne amoa a wotu fa asase ase abotan ani a ɛmma wontutu mmura pii no. Fango a wotu no mpoano a wɔhyɛɛ ase 1947 mu wɔ Mexico Faka no mu no maa fango dodow a wotu no kɔɔ soro. Nokwarem no, ɔkwan a wɔfa so tu fango no nya ɛbo a sɛ wɔyɛ ho dwuma wie a wɔde gye no so nkɛntɛnso tee.b

Ɔkwan Bɛn So na Wɔde Fango Kɔ Mmeae Horow?

Wɔ afe 1863 mu wɔ Pennsylvania no, wɔde dua yɛɛ nnorobɛn a wɔde fango fa mu kɔ mmeae horow esiane sɛ na ne bo nyɛ den, na emu nyɛ duru papa te sɛ ankora a na fango lita 159 kɔ mu a na wɔde si nteaseɛnam a ɔpɔnkɔ twe mu tu kwan no nti.c Nnorobɛn a wɔyɛ no nnɛ no di mu sen kan de no, na wɔayeyɛ pii. Sɛnea Fekuw a Wɔyɛ Nnorobɛn a Fango Fa Mu kyerɛ no, United States nkutoo wɔ nnorobɛn a fango fa mu a ɛtoatoam bɛyɛ kilomita 300,000!

Ɛnyɛ fango nkutoo na wɔde fa nnorobɛn a ɛte saa a wɔde nnade ayɛ no mu kɔ mmeae a wɔsɔn so no, na mmom wɔde nneɛma a wonya fi fango a wɔayɛ ho adwuma awie mu no fa nnorobɛn mu kɔma wɔn a wɔtɔn ma nkurɔfo no nso. Abɛɛfo kwan a wɔfa so yɛ dorobɛn no ma mfiri bi ankasa tumi hwɛ ahoɔden a ngo no de sen fa nnorobɛn mu no. Wɔayɛ mfiri nwonwaso nketewa bi a etumi fa dorobɛn mu kɔ kilomita ɔhaha pii de hwɛ sɛ ebia fango no bi nwunu fa baabi anaasɛ ebia nnade no ho baabi apaapae anaa. Nanso, ebia nea obi a ɔtɔ pɛtro behu ara ne sɛnkyerɛnne a ɛkyerɛ sɛ dorobɛn a fango fa mu hyɛ fam hɔ a enti ɛnsɛ sɛ otutu hɔ.

Ɛwom sɛ dorobɛn so wɔ mfaso de, nanso ɛnyɛ ɔkwan a edi mu a wɔnam so de fango pii kɔ amannɔne. Nanso wɔn a wodii kan yɛɛ fango ho adwuma no nyaa ano aduru nso—ɛpo so hyɛn akɛse a ɛfa fango. Eyinom yɛ ahyɛn a wɔahyɛ da ayɛ a ne tenten bɛyɛ sɛ mita 400. Ahyɛn a ɛfa fango yi ne po so hyɛn a ɛso sen biara a etumi fa fango ankora ɔpepem biako anaa nea ɛboro saa. Awerɛhosɛm ne sɛ, ɛmfa ho ahoɔden a ahyɛn akɛse yi wɔ no, ɛda so ara wɔ ɔhaw bi a wontumi nnii ho dwuma, sɛnea adaka “Fango a Ehwie Gu Ho Nsɛm” kyerɛ no. Nhyɛmma ne keteke nso yɛ akwan a wɔtaa fa so de fango pii kɔ mmeae horow. Nanso, wɔ fango ho adwumayɛ mu no, kɔ a wɔde bɛkɔ mmeae horow no yɛ adwuma no fã bi ara kwa.

Ogya a ɛdɛw ketewaa bi anaa wusiw kumɔnn a efi dorobɛn tenten bi mu ba—a ɛbɔ mfiri no ho ban—no yɛ biribi a ɛkyerɛ sɛ worehwɛ baabi a wɔsɔn fango so. Nea ɛkɔ so titiriw wɔ mfiri akɛse a ɛsɔn fango so yi mu ne sɛ, wɔnoa fango ma ɛyɛ hyew na wɔma ɛkɔfa abantenten bi mu ma edwo, na ɛhɔ na fango no mu kyekyɛ ma wonya n’afã horow pii. Eyiyi mu yɛ no afã horow fi nea emu yɛ hare paa so kosi nea emu yɛ duru paa a wɔde yɛ nneɛma afoforo, a ngo a wɔde gugu mfiri mu ka ho so. (Hwɛ kratafã 8-9.) Nanso asɛmmisa a wonnyaa ho mmuae ne sɛ, So fango abɛyɛ ɔdomfo kumfo?

[Ase hɔ nsɛm]

[Adaka/Mfonini wɔ kratafa 5]

ANKORA ANAASƐ TƆN?

Nnwumakuw a wodii kan tuu fango wɔ Pennsylvania no de fango guu ankora a na bobesa lita 180 kɔ mu mu de faa po so kɔɔ mmeae horow. Awiei koraa no, wɔde fango lita 159 pɛ na eguu ankora mu sɛnea ɛbɛyɛ a ɛmmobɔ ngu bere a wɔde rekɔ mmeae horow no. Wɔda so ara de ankora (lita 159) na edi dwuma nnɛ wɔ fango aguadi mu.

Mfitiase no, na wosusuw fango a wɔde fa po so kɔ Europa no wɔ nsenia ne tɔn mu sɛnea wɔyɛ nnɛ no.

[Asɛm Fibea]

Beae a efi: American Petroleum Institute

[Adaka wɔ kratafa 6]

Dɛn Na Ɛdan Fango?

Nsusuwii a nyansahufo pii akura mu fi 1870 mfe no mu ne nkyerɛkyerɛ a ɛka sɛ abɔde a nkwa wom na ɛdan fango no. Saa “nkyerɛkyerɛ yi ka sɛ abɔde a nkwa wom a ɛkɔhyɛ asase ase abotan mu no porɔw na wɔ bere tenten bi mu no ɛdan fango anaa gas, na afei fango yi ano boa wɔ ntokuru nketenkete a ɛwɔ asase ase abotan a ɛbɛn [Asase] ani no mu.” Saa kwan yi so na fango nam ba, a nea ɛwom titiriw ne hydrocarbon—kyerɛ sɛ, hydrogen ne carbon mframa a adi afra. Nanso efi 1970 mfe no mu no, ɛtɔ mmere bi a, nyansahufo binom gye saa nkyerɛkyerɛ yi ho kyim.

Wotintim asɛm “Hydrocarbon ne Fango Fibea” wɔ Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences nsɛmma nhoma a epuei wɔ August 20, 2002 no mu. Nhomakyerɛwfo no kyerɛkyerɛ mu sɛ, ɛsɛ sɛ fango fi beae a emu dɔ wɔ “Asase no mu tɔnn,” na ɛnyɛ abotan a ɛbɛn asase ani sɛnea nnipa pii agye atom no.

Thomas Gold a ɔyɛ abɔde mu nneɛma ho nimdefo no de nkyerɛkyerɛ a ebinom nnye ntom ama wɔ ne nhoma The Deep Hot Biosphere—The Myth of Fossil Fuels no mu, na ɔkyerɛkyerɛɛ nea enti a ɔkaa saa no mu kɔɔ akyiri. Ɔkyerɛw sɛ: “Nnipa a na wɔwɔ United States ne Europa aman pii so no gyee abɔde a nkwa wom a ɛporɔw wɔ asase ase abotan mu ma ɛdan fango nkyerɛkyerɛ no toom koraa ma enti wogyaee sɛ wɔbɛyɛ nnipa a na wɔne wɔn nyɛ adwene no de mu nhwehwɛmu. Nanso na ɛnte saa wɔ aman a na ɛwɔ kan Soviet Union mu no ho.” Nea ɛma ɛbaa saa “ne Russiani duruyɛfo Mendeleyev a na wobu no paa a na ogye di sɛ fango mfi abɔde a nkwa wom mu no. Sɛ yɛhwɛ nkyerɛkyerɛmu a ɛkɔ akyiri a yɛwɔ nnɛ no a, ɛma ne nsusuwii a ɔdaa no adi no nya nnyinaso a emu yɛ den.” Dɛn ne nsusuwii a ɛkyerɛ sɛ wonnye ntom sɛ wonya fango fi abɔde a nkwa wom mu no?

Gold ka sɛ: “Nkyerɛkyerɛ a ɛne sɛ fango mfi abɔde a nkwa wom mu no kyerɛ sɛ hydrocarbon fi nneɛma horow a wɔde bɔɔ asase a ano boaboaa nkakrankakra bɛyɛ mfe ɔpepepem 4.5 a atwam ni no mu.” Sɛnea nkyerɛkyerɛ yi kyerɛ no, nneɛma a ɛwɔ fango mu no wɔ asase mu tɔnn fi bere a wɔbɔɔ asase no.d

[Ase hɔ asɛm]

[Adaka/Mfonini wɔ kratafa 10, 11]

FANGO A EHWIE GU HO NSƐM

◼ Fango dodow a efi hyɛn mu hwie gui fi 1970 bɛpem 2000 no si tɔn 5,322,000

◼ Fango a ɛdɔɔso sen biara no hwie gui wɔ 1979 mu bere a ahyɛn akɛse Atlantic Empress ne Aegean Captain pemee wɔ Caribbean, na ɛmaa fango tɔn 287,000 hwie gui no

◼ Exxon Valdez ne ɛpo so hyɛn kɛse a ɛto so 34 a emu fango hwie gui

◼ Ɛwom sɛ mpɛn pii no ahyɛn akɛse mu fango hwie gu bere a wɔde fango no regu hyɛn mu ne bere a wɔreyi afi mu no de, nanso fango hwie gu kɛse bere a ɛhyɛn pem anaasɛ ɛmem wɔ nsu mu no.

◼ Fango pii a ehwie gu a emfi ahyɛn akɛse na mmom efi nneɛma afoforo:

● Abura a wɔhwehwɛ fango wom a wɔfrɛ no Ixtoc I no, paee wɔ 1979 mu wɔ Mexico Faka mu. Dodow a ehwie gui: lita 500,000,000

● Abura a wɔde fango gu mu a ɛpaee wɔ Persia Faka mu wɔ 1983. Dodow a ehwie gui: lita 300,000,000

● Fango a wɔhyɛɛ da hwie gui wɔ 1991 mu wɔ Persia Faka mu. Dodow a ehwie gui: lita 900,000,000

[Mfonini]

Ɛhyɛn kɛse “Erika” a ɛfa fango memee wɔ beae a ɛbɛn Penmarch Point, France, wɔ December 13, 1999 mu

[Nsɛm Fibea]

Beae a efi: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, “Oil Spill Intelligence Report,” “The Encarta Encyclopedia”

© La Marine Nationale, France

[Asɛm a Wɔahyehyɛ/Mfonini ahorow wɔ kratafa 8, 9]

(Wopɛ nsɛm a wɔahyehyɛ awie no a, hwɛ nhoma no mu)

SƐNEA WƆYƐ FANGO A WƆAMA ASETE AYƐ MMERƐW

1​—SƐNEA WƆHWEHWƐ

AFIRI A WƆDE KYERE NSƐM

Afiri a wɔfrɛ no Global Positioning System no de nsɛnkyerɛnne ma wɔn a wosusuw nsase no pɛpɛɛpɛ

AFIRI A ƐKYERE NNYIGYEI FI ASASE ASE

AFIRI A WƆDE PEMPEM ASASE SO MA EGYIGYE

AFIRI A WƆDE TE NNYIGYEI FI NSU ASE

NSUHYƐN A WƆDE PEMPEM NSU ASE MA EGYIGYE

Ɔkwan biako a wɔfa so yɛ asase mu nhwehwɛmu ne sɛ wotu amoa de afiri bi tom, na wɔyɛ nnyigyei a ɛrekɔ so wɔ amoa no mu ho kyerɛwtohɔ

2​—FANGO A WƆTWE

MMURA A ƐWƆ ASASE ASE

FANGO A WOTU WƆ MPOANO

FANGO ABURA A WOTU WƆ NSU ASE

Akwan a wɔfa so twe fango no bi ne sɛ wɔtwe fi asase mu, mpoano, ne nsu ase. Nea ɛbɛyɛ na ahoɔden a fango de puw ba no agyina no, wotumi de gas ahorow anaa nsu gu amoa a wɔtwe fango fi mu no mu

[Mfonini]

FANGO ABURA A ƐWƆ NSU ASE

Wofi akyirikyiri miamia mfiri bi so ma po ase hyɛn yɛ adwuma ma wɔde hyehyɛ mfiri a wɔde tu fango wɔ po ase

[Mfonini]

AMOA A WOTU WƆ ASASE ASE ABOTAN ANI

Mfiri ho nimdefo gyina akyirikyiri kyinkyim mfiri ma mfiri no ankasa hwehwɛ sɛnea asase ase abo no te mu

3​—ƆKWAN A WƆFA SO DE KƆ MMEAE HOROW

NNOROBƐN

HYƐN KƐSE A WƆDE FA FANGO

Wɔde fango fa nnorobɛn a ɛsensɛn wim, ɛnam asase ne po ase mu kɔ mmeae horow. Akwan afoforo a wɔnam so de kɔ mmeae horow no bi ne po so ahyɛn akɛse, nhyɛmma ne keteke

4​—FANGO A WƆSƆN SO

BEAE A WƆSƆN FANGO SO

Wɔnoa fango, wɔsɔn so, na woyiyi mu nya afã ahorow a wobetumi de ayɛ nneɛma a yɛde di dwuma da biara da

ABANTENTEN A ƐSƆN FANGO SO

Sɛ fango yɛ pikãã a, wɔde fa nnorobɛn mu ka no hyew wɔ fononoo mu, na eyi ma nsu ne mframa a ɛwɔ fango mu no dan gas. Afei gas ahorow yi san dan nsu bere a adwo adu baabi no. Afei emu kyekyɛ ma wonya n’afa horow no

↑ ↑

↑ ↑

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↑ ↑

Digrii Celsius 400 → NEA ƐKA FANGO ASE Wɔyɛ ho adwuma bio

ALUMINA MUHUMUHU A WƆDE SƆN FANGO SO

Wɔnoa hydrocarbon ahorow na afei wɔde alumina muhumuhu a ayɛ hyew fra mu. Wɔnam saa kwan yi so sɔn fango so yiyi mu nketenkete ma ɛso ba mfaso

Wɔde alumina muhumuhu no fra hydrocarbon a adan mframa no

↓ ↓ ↓

ETHANOL RƆBA AHOROW NNEƐMA FOFORO A WƆDE FRA PƐTRO

[Asɛm Fibea]

Photo Courtesy of Phillips Petroleum Company

[Nsɛm a wɔahyehyɛ wɔ kratafa 7]

(Wopɛ nsɛm a wɔahyehyɛ awie no a, hwɛ nhoma no mu)

Mmeae Titiriw A Yenya Fango

Fango ankora ɔpepepem pii na ɛwɔ hɔ. Fango a wonhui nka eyi ho

Fango ankora ɔpepepem pii na ɛwɔ hɔ. Fango a wonhui nka eyi ho

▪ OPEC kuw muni

• Ɔman a ɛwɔ beae biako anaa nea ɛboro saa a wotu fango pii

Dodow a wonya

◆ Nea ɛda so wɔ hɔ

▪ • ◆ 332.7 SAUDI ARABIA

• ◆ 216.5 UNITED STATES

• ◆ 192.6 RUSSIA

▪ • ◆ 135.9 IRAN

▪ • ◆ 130.6 VENEZUELA

▪ • ◆ 125.1 KUWAIT

▪ • ◆ 122.8 IRAQ

▪ • ◆ 113.3 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

• ◆ 70.9 MEXICO

• ◆ 42.9 CHINA

▪ • ◆ 41.9 LIBYA

▪ ◆ 33.4 NIGERIA

◆ 21.2 CANADA

▪ ◆ 21.0 INDONESIA

◆ 20.5 KAZAKHSTAN

▪ • ◆ 18.3 ALGERIA

◆ 17.6 NORWAY

◆ 16.9 UNITED KINGDOM

[Mfonini ahorow wɔ kratafa 4]

Fango abura a edi kan, Titusville, Pennsylvania, 1859

Fango a ɛrepuw fi abura bi mu gu fam wɔ Texas

[Asɛm Fibea]

Brown Brothers

[Mfonini wɔ kratafa 5]

Beae a na tete no wotu fango, Beaumont, Texas

[Mfonini wɔ kratafa 5]

Teaseɛnam a ɔpɔnkɔ twe de ankora a fango wom rekɔ baabi

[Mfonini wɔ kratafa 10]

Egya atɔ fango abura mu wɔ Kuwait

[Mfonini Fibea wɔ kratafa 5]

All photos: Brown Brothers