Oonobumba Abatsobhileyo Bamandulo NeBhayibhile
EMVA kokudutyadutywa kolwimi lwabantu eBhabheli, kwaqalisa iindlela ezahlukahlukeneyo zokubhala. Abantu abahlala eMesopotamiya, njengamaSumeri namaBhabhiloni, basebenzisa oonobumba abatsobhileyo. Indlela ababizwa ngayo aba nobumba ithathwe kwigama lesiLatini elibhekisela ‘kwinto etsobhileyo’ yaye libhekisela kwiimpawu ezingoonxantathu ezazisenziwa ngosiba kudongwe olumanzi.
Abembi bezinto zakudala baye bafumana imibhalo ebhalwe ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo ethetha ngabantu neziganeko ezikhankanywe eZibhalweni. Sazi ntoni ngale ndlela yamandulo yokubhala? Ibe le mibhalo ingqina njani ukuba iBhayibhile inokuthenjwa?
Le Mibhalo Isekho Nanamhlanje
Abaphengululi bakholelwa ukuba ekuqaleni indlela yokubhala eyayisetyenziswa eMesopotamiya yayinemifanekiso okanye imizobo emela igama okanye ingcamango ekuthethwa ngayo. Ngokomzekelo, ekuqaleni unobumba omela inkomo wayefana nentloko yenkomo. Njengoko kwakufuneka kugcinwe iingxelo, kwaqalisa ukubhalwa ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo. INIV Archaeological Study Bible ithi: “Imizobo yayingasameli nje amagama kuphela kodwa yayimela amalungu, yaye uninzi lwayo lwaludityaniswa ukuze kwakhiwe igama.” Ekugqibeleni, imizobo emalunga nama-200 eyahlukahlukeneyo yathatyathelw’ indawo ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo “abathi basetyenziselwa ukwakha ulwimi oluthethwayo, nabo bonke ubucukubhede besigama negrama.”
Oonobumba abatsobhileyo babesele besetyenziswa ngemihla ka-Abraham, malunga nowama-2 000 B.C.E. Kwiinkulungwane ezingama-20 ezalandelayo, iilwimi ezimalunga ne-15 zasebenzisa le ndlela yokubhala. Ngaphezu kwama-99 ekhulwini emibhalo yoonobumba abatsobhileyo eyafunyanwayo yayibhalwe kumacwecwe odongwe. Kwiminyaka eli-150 eyadlulayo, uninzi lwaloo macwecwe lwafunyanwa eUre, eUruk, eBhabhiloni, eNimrud, eNippur, eAshur, eNineve, eMari, e-Ebla, eUgarit naseAmarna. IArchaeology Odyssey ithi: “Iingcali ziqikelela ukuba sele kufunyenwe imibhalo enoonobumba abatsobhileyo abamalunga nesigidi nezigidi ezibini ibe nyaka ngamnye kufunyanwa emalunga nama-25 000.”
Abaphengululi boonobumba abatsobhileyo abasehlabathini lonke banomsebenzi omkhulu wokuguqulela. Ngokutsho kolunye uhlolisiso, “ngumbhalo omnye kuphela kwelishumi ekhoyo yaba nobumba oye wafundwa enoba kukanye kutshanje.”
Ukufunyanwa kwemibhalo eneelwimi ezimbini okanye ezintathu yoonobumba abatsobhileyo kwanceda ekuqondweni kwaba nobumba batsobhileyo. Abaphengululi baqonda ukuba le miqulu yayinemibhalo efanayo kwiilwimi ezahlukahlukeneyo ezibhalwe ngaba nobumba. Enye into eyancedayo ekuqondweni kwayo yayikukubona ukuba amagama, izibizo, imilibo yokuzalwa yabalawuli nemibongo yayidla ngokuphindaphindwa.
Ngeminyaka yee-1850, abaphengululi babekwazi ukufunda ulwimi ababenxibelelana ngalo abantu bamandulo baseMbindi-mpuma, abaseAkkadia okanye ama-Asiriya aseBhabhiloni olwalubhalwe ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo. IEncyclopædia Britannica ithi: “Sathi sakuqondakala isiAkkadia, kwaqondakala naba nobumba ibe kwaba lula nokuguqulela ezinye iilwimi ezibhalwe ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo.” Le mibhalo idibana njani neZibhalo?
Ubungqina Obuvumelana NeBhayibhile
IBhayibhile ithi iYerusalem yayilawulwa ngookumkani bamaKanan de uDavide wayoyisa, malunga nowama-1070 B.C.E. (Yosh. 10:1; 2 Sam. 5:4-9) Kodwa abanye abaphengululi babekuthandabuza oku. Noko ke, ngowe-1887 ibhinqa elihlwempuzekileyo lachola ucwecwe lodongwe eAmarna, eYiputa. Ekugqibeleni, kwafunyanwa kuloo ndawo imibhalo emalunga nama-380, eyimbalelwano yaseburhulumenteni phakathi kwabalawuli baseYiputa (uAmenhotep III noAkhenaton) nookumkani bakwaKanan. Iileta ezintandathu zazivela ku‘Abdi-Heba, umlawuli waseYerusalem.
IBiblical Archaeology Review ithi: “Amacwecwe aseAmarna achaza iYerusalem njengedolophu kungekhona indawo yomntu othile, aze achaze isigxina sika-‘Abdi-Heba . . . njengerhuluneli eyayinendawo yayo yokuhlala namajoni angama-50 angamaYiputa awayenenkampu eYerusalem, nto leyo ebonisa ukuba iYerusalem yayibubukumkani nje obuncinane obabukwilizwe elineenduli.” Kwaeli phephancwadi laphinda lathi: “Siqinisekile ukuba, ngokutsho kwezi leta zaseAmarna, kwakha kwakho isixeko esasidumile ngeemini zaso.”
Amagama Akwiingxelo Zama-Asiriya NamaBhabhiloni
Ama-Asiriya namaBhabhiloni kamva, abhala imbali yawo kumacwecwe odongwe, kwanakwimiqulu, kwiiglasi nakumatye ezikhumbuzo. Ngoko xa abaphengululi babefunda oonobumba abatsobhileyo besiAkkadia, bafumanisa ukuba kule miqulu kukho amagama abantu akhoyo naseBhayibhileni.
Incwadi ethi The Bible in the British Museum ithi: “Kwintetho yakhe awayinikela kwiSociety of Biblical Archaeology eyayisandul’ ukusekwa, uGqr. Samuel Birch wabona [kwimibhalo ebhalwe ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo amagama] ookumkani abangamaHebhere abanjengo-Omri, uAhabhi, uYehu, uAzariya . . . , uMenahem, uPeka, uHosheya, uHezekiya noManase, ookumkani abangama-Asiriya abanjengoTigelati-pilesere . . . [III], uSargon, uSenaribhe, uEsarhaddon noAshurbanipal, . . . nabangamaSiriya uBenhadadi, uHazayeli noRetsin.”
Incwadi ethi The Bible and Radiocarbon Dating ithelekisa imbali yeBhayibhile kaSirayeli noYuda nemibhalo yamandulo ebhalwe ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo. Oko kuphumele entwenini? “Ayavela amagama abo bonke ookumkani abali-15 okanye abali-16 bakwaYuda nakwaSirayeli kwiingxelo zamanye amazwe zelo xesha, ngokuvumelana ngokupheleleyo [nencwadi yeBhayibhile] yooKumkani. Akukho nokuba abe mnye ukumkani ongekhoyo, yaye akukho nanye kwezi ngxelo zivela kwamanye amazwe ethetha ngokumkani esingazange sive ngaye kwincwadi yooKumkani.”
Omnye wemibhalo edumileyo ebhalwe ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo eyafunyanwa ngowe-1879, obizwa ngokuba yiCyrus Cylinder, uchaza ukuba emva kokuba uKoreshi wathimba iBhabhiloni ngowama-539 B.C.E., ngokwesiko lakhe wabuyisela abathinjwa kumazwe akwamawabo. Abanye abagoduswayo ngamaYuda. (Ezra 1:1-4) Abaphengululi abaninzi benkulungwane ye-19 bakuthandabuza ukuchana komyalelo ocatshulwe eBhayibhileni. Noko ke, amaxwebhu abhalwe ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo, awayekho ngexesha lokulawula kwamaPersi, kuquka iCyrus Cylinder, anikela ubungqina obubambekayo bokuba ingxelo yeBhayibhile ichanile.
Ngowe-1883 kwafunyanwa uvimba onemibhalo engaphezu kwama-700 ebhalwe ngoonobumba abatsobhileyo eNippur, kufutshane neBhabhiloni. Phakathi kwamagama angama-2 500 akhankanywe kuyo, amalunga nama-70 ekwafunyaniswa ukuba ngawesiYuda. Umbhali-mbali uEdwin Yamauchi uthi kubonakala ngathi la magama “ngawabantu abenze izivumelwano, amangqina, ababuthi berhafu namagosa asebukhosini.” Kukho ubungqina obubalulekileyo bokuba amaYuda ayesenza loo misebenzi kufutshane neBhabhiloni ngelo xesha. Obu bungqina buvumelana nesiprofeto seBhayibhile sokuba ngoxa “intsalela” yamaSirayeli yabuyela kwaYuda ivela ekuthinjweni eAsiriya naseBhabhiloni, abaninzi abazange babuyele.—Isa. 10:21, 22.
Ebudeni benkulungwane yokuqala Ngaphambi kweXesha Eliqhelekileyo, oonobumba abatsobhileyo babesetyenziswa ngaxeshanye noonobumba abaqhelekileyo. Kodwa ekugqibeleni ama-Asiriya namaBhabhiloni ayeka ukusebenzisa oonobumba abatsobhileyo aza asebenzisa abo baqhelekileyo.
Kusekho amakhulu amawaka amacwecwe akwiimyuziyam angekafundwa. Lawo sele efundiwe ziingcali anobungqina obaneleyo bokuba iBhayibhile inokuthenjwa. Kwazi bani ukuba le mibhalo ingekafundwa inokongezelela obunye ubungqina?
[Inkcazelo Ngomfanekiso okwiphepha 21]
Photograph taken by courtesy of the British Museum