Indlela Awaphulukana Ngayo Nelizwe Lawo

KANGANGEMINYAKA emininzi ibali leUnited States belishwankathelwa ngamazwi athi, “Indlela eyazuzwa ngayo iNtshona.” Imifanekiso eshukumayo yaseHollywood iye yabonisa amaveza-ndlebe angabelungu enqumla amathafa neentaba zaseMerika, ehamba namajoni ohlobo lukaJohn Wayne, abelusi beenkomo abakhwele amahashe, naloo maveza-ndlebe esilwa namaIndiya alugcalagcala, akhohlakeleyo naphethe amazenjana. Ngoxa abelungu babefuna umhlaba negolide, bambi abefundisi nabashumayeli beNgqobhoko babesindisa imiphefumlo, ngokutsho kwabo.

Ikhangeleka njani le mbali kubemi bantlandlolo, abantu bomthonyama baseMerika? Ngokufika kwamaNgesi, amaIndiya “anyanzelelwa ukuba ahlangabezane nokufakwa kolona tshaba lunengcwangu akha ajamelana nalo kwimekobume yawo: abaphangi abangamaNgesi,” itsho njalo incwadi ethi The Native Americans—An Illustrated History.

Imvisiswano Eyakhokelela Kukruthakruthwano

Ekuqaleni, uninzi lwamaNgesi awafika kuqala kuMntla-mpuma weMerika ayephathwa ngobubele nangemvisiswano ngabemi bomthonyama. Enye ingxelo ithi: “Ngaphandle koncedo lwamaIndiya aziiPowhatans, indawo yokuhlala abemi baseBritani eJamestown, eVirginia, ithanga lokuqala elisisigxina lamaNgesi kwiHlabathi Elitsha, ngelalingazange lisinde kubusika balo bokuqala obabuqhaqhazelisa amazinyo bowe-1607-08. Ngokufanayo, ithanga laBemi bokuqala basePlymouth, eMassachusetts, ngelalisilele ngaphandle koncedo lwamaWampanoags.” Bambi abemi bomthonyama babonisa abemi basemzini indlela yokuchumisa umhlaba nokukhulisa izityalo. Yaye laliya kuphumelela njani iphulo likaLewis noClark lowe-1804-06—lokufumana unxibelelwano lwezothutho phakathi koMmandla waseLouisiana nendawo eyayibizwa ngokuba liLizwe laseOregon—ngaphandle koncedo nokungenelela komfazi ongumShoshone uSacagawea? Waba “ngumqondiso woxolo” kubo xa bagagana namaIndiya.

Noko ke, ngenxa yendlela yamaNgesi yokusebenzisa umhlaba nokungabikho kokutya okwaneleyo, ukufuduka okukhulu kusiyiwa eMntla Merika kwabangela inkxalabo phakathi kwaba baphangi nabemi bomthonyama. Umbhali-mbali waseKhanada uIan K. Steele ucacisa ukuba kwinkulungwane ye-17, kwakukho amaNarragansett angama-30 000 eMassachusetts. Inkosi yawo uMiantonomo, “irhanela ukuba kunokubakho ingozi, . . . yazama ukulwandisa umanyano lwayo namaMohawk ukuze ibumbe iqela lemvukelo lawo onke amaMerika Omthonyama.” Kuthiwa yathi kumaMontauk ngowe-1642: “[Simele] simanyane njengokuba nabo [amaNgesi] benjalo, kungenjalo siza kuphela ngethutyana nje, kuba niyazi ukuba oobawo bethu babenamaxhama nezikhumba ezininzi, amathafa ethu ayezele ngamaxhama, ngokunjalo namahlathi ethu, ayezele [ziikarikuni], namatheku ethu ezele ziintlanzi neentaka. Kodwa athi la maNgesi akufumana umhlaba wethu, asika ingca ngamarhengqa, agawula imithi ngamazembe; iinkomo namahashe awo atya ingca, neehagu zawo zagxobha imilambo yethu ehlala iimbaza, yaye sonke siza kuthwaxwa linxele likaKhetsekile.”—Warpaths—Invasions of North America.

Imigudu kaMiantonomo yokwakha umanyano oluluqilima lwamaMerika Omthonyama ayizange iphumelele. Ngowe-1643, kwimfazwe yobuzwe, wabanjwa nguNkosi Uncas wesizwe samaMohegan, waza wamnikela kumaNgesi njengomvukeli. AmaNgesi ayengenalungelo lingokwasemthethweni lokumbek’ ityala aze ambulale uMiantonomo. Afumanisa icebo ayenokulisebenzisa. USteele uhlabela mgama esithi: “Engakwazi ukumbulala [uMiantonomo], owayengekho ngaphantsi kwalo naliphi ithanga, abaphathi basebenzisa u-Uncas ukuba ambulale, kukho amaNgesi awayeza kungqina ukuba oko kwenziwe.”

Oku akubonisi nje kuphela ungquzulwano oluhlala luhleli phakathi kwabemi bamathanga abangabaphangi nabemi bomthonyama kodwa kubonisa ukhuphiswano oluyingozi nokukhohlisa phakathi kwezi zizwe, obelusoloko lukho kwanangaphambi kokuba abelungu bafike kuMntla Merika. IBritani kwiimfazwe zayo nxamnye neFransi ngenxa yolawulo lwamathanga akuMntla Merika, yaxhaswa zezinye izizwe kwiimfazwe zayo nxamnye neFransi, ngoxa ezinye zaxhasa iFransi. Kungakhathaliseki ukuba liliphi icala eloyiswayo, zonke izizwe ezazibandakanyekile zalahlekelwa.

“Umsantsa Obangelwa Kukungaqondani”

Nantsi enye imbono engokuhlasela kwamaNgesi: “Into ebezisoloko zingayiqondi iinkokeli zezizwe zamaIndiya, de zashiywa lixesha, yayiyindlela amaNgesi awayewajonga ngayo amaIndiya. Ayengawagqali njengabelungu okanye amaKristu. Ayewagqala njengeendlavini—abantu abanengcwangu nabangaphucukanga—kwabaninzi, ayeyingozi yaye engenazimvakalelo efanele nje ukuba athengiswe njengamakhoboka.” Esi simo sengqondo sokuba ngabongamileyo saba nemiphumo enxunguphalisayo kwezo zizwe.

AmaMerika Omthonyama ayengayiqondi imbono yamaNgesi. Njengoko umcebisi ongumNavajo uPhilmer Bluehouse wakubizayo kudliwano-ndlebe lwakutshanje noVukani!, kwakukho “umsantsa obangelwa kukungaqondani.” Abemi bomthonyama babengayijongi impucuko yabo njengephantsi, kodwa, kunoko, njengeyahlukileyo, nenemilinganiselo ekhetheke ngokupheleleyo. Ngokomzekelo, ukuthengisa umhlaba kwakuyinto engaqhelekanga kumaIndiya. Ngaba umoya, namanzi angangawakho uze uwathengise? Ngoko kutheni ufanele wenjenjalo ngomhlaba? Wawenzelwe ukuba usetyenziswe ngumntu wonke. Ngenxa yoko, amaIndiya ayengawubiyeli umhlaba.

Ekufikeni kwamaNgesi, abantu baseSpeyin namaFrentshi, kwenzeka oko bekuchazwa ngokuba “kukudibana okuyintlekele kwezithethe ezingafaniyo.” Abemi bomthonyama balapho babengabantu ababethe kangangamakhulukhulu eminyaka bazama ukuhlala ngemvisiswano nomhlaba nendalo nababeyazi indlela yokuphila ngaphandle kokuphazamisana nolungelelwano lwendalo. Kodwa kungekudala kwafika abelungu ababajonga abemi bomthonyama njengezidalwa eziphantsi nezinengcwangu—ngabom beyilibala inkohlakalo abayibonisayo ngethuba lokubahlasela! Ngowe-1831, umbhali-mbali womFrentshi uAlexis de Tocqueville walushwankathela ngolu hlobo uluvo lwabelungu olwesameleyo ngamaIndiya: “UThixo akawadalelanga ukuba aphucuke; kufuneka afe.”

Oyena Mbulali Uyingozi

Njengoko abemi abatsha babefuduka besuka entshona benqumla uMntla Merika, ugonyamelo lwabangela olunye ugonyamelo. Ngoko enoba ngamaIndiya okanye ngabaphangi abangamaNgesi abahlasela kuqala, la macala omabini abangela izenzo zenkohlakalo. AmaIndiya ayesoyikwa ngenxa yokwaziwa kwawo ngokususa isikhumba esigquma ukakayi, nto leyo bambi abakholelwa ukuba ayifundiswa ngamaNgesi awayebanika izinto ezininzi ngenxa yesikhumba sokakayi. Noko ke, amaIndiya ayesilwa umlo ongayi ndawo nxamnye nabantu ababodlula lee—ngamanani nangezixhobo. Kwiimeko ezininzi ezi zizwe zaphelela ekubeni ziwushiye umhlaba wookhokho bazo okanye zife. Ngokufuthi ezi zinto zazisenzeka zombini—ayeyishiya imihlaba yawo aze abulawe okanye afe zizifo okanye linxele likaKhetsekile.

Sekunjalo, ukufa edabini kwakungenguye oyena nobangela uyintloko wokutshabalala kwezizwe zomthonyama. UIan K. Steele ubhala athi: “Esona sixhobo saba namandla ekuhlaselweni koMntla Merika sasingengompu, ihashe, iBhayibhile, okanye ‘impucuko’ yaseYurophu. Yayisisifo esingubhubhani.” Ngokuphathelele okwabangelwa zizifo zeHlabathi Elidala kumazwe aseMerika, uPatrica Nelson Limerick, ongunjingalwazi wezembali, wabhala: “Xa kwafikwa nazo kwiHlabathi Elitsha, ezi zifo zifanayo [ekusele kulithuba elide gqitha amaNgesi ezama amayeza okuzigonyela]—irhashalala, imasisi, umkhuhlane obulalayo, isifo seengcongconi, ulubhelushe, isifo seentwala, isifo sephepha, yaye ngaphezu kwazo zonke, ingqakaqha—akazange akwazi ukuzikhusela kuzo. Umlinganiselo wabantu ababesifa kwiidolophana ngeedolophana wawufikelela kuma-80 okanye ama-90 ekhulwini.”

URussell Freedman uchaza ubhubhani wengqakaqha owawugquba ngowe-1837. “AmaMandan aba ngawokuqala ukuthwaxwa nguwo, ngokukhawuleza alandelwa ngamaHidatsa, ngama-Assiniboins, ngama-Arikaras, ngamaSioux, nangamaBlackfeet.” AmaMandan aphantse atshatyalaliswa ngokupheleleyo. Esuka ekubeni ngabemi abali-1600 ngowe-1834, ancipha aba li-130 ngowe-1837.

Kwenzeka Ntoni Kwizivumelwano?

Ukuza kuthi ga kulo mhla izibonda zezi zizwe zisayikhumbula imihla urhulumente waseUnited States awatyikitya ngayo izivumelwano nookhokho bazo ngenkulungwane ye-19. Kodwa yintoni ngokwenene ezayiziselwa zezo zivumelwano? Ngokuqhelekileyo yayikukutshintshiselana ngobuqhinga ngomhlaba omhle ukuze afumane umhlaba oyinkqantosi noncedo lukarhulumente.

Umzekelo wendelelo eziye zaphathwa ngayo izizwe zomthonyama kwimeko yomanyano lwezizwe ekuthiwa yi-Iroquois (ukusuka empuma ukuya entshona ngamaMohawk, amaOneida, amaOnondaga, amaCayuga, namaSeneca) emva kokuba amaNgesi oyiswa ngabemi bamathanga aseMerika kwimfazwe yokulwela inkululeko, neyaphela ngowe-1783. Ezi zizwe zeIroquois zancedisa amaNgesi, yaye ekuphela kwembuyiselo ezayifumanayo, ngokutsho kuka-Alvin Josephy, Jr., kukushiywa enyanyeni nokunyeliswa. AmaNgesi, “etyeshela [i-Iroquois], athabatha ulawulo lwayo kwimihlaba yayo alunika iUnited States.” Wongezelela athi kwanezizwe zeIroquois ebezibathanda abemi bamathanga kunamaNgesi “zagxagxanyiswa ziinkampani ezishishina ngomhlaba ezingoongxow’ ayibotshwa nabo banezabelo emashishinini kwanangurhulumente waseMerika.”

Xa kwabizwa intlanganiso yokutyikitya isivumelwano ngowe-1784, uJames Duane, owayesakuba ngummeli weContinental Congress’ Committee on Indian Affairs, wabongoza amagosa aseburhulumenteni “ukuba aphelise nakuphi na ukuzithemba okukhoyo kwizizwe zeIroquois ngokuthi ngabom aziphathe njengeziphantsi.”

Amacebiso akhe ekratshi alandelwa. Ezinye izizwe zeIroquois zenziwa abathinjwa yaye “uthethathethwano” lwaqhutywa zijoliswe ngemipu. Nangona zazizigqala zingoyiswanga emfazweni, izizwe zeIroquois kwanyanzeleka zinikezele ngawo wonke umhlaba wazo okwintshona yeNew York nePennsylvania zize zamkele umhlaba ezaziwubekelwe nomncinane kwiLizwe laseNew York.

Kwasetyenziswa iindlela ezifanayo kwinkoliso yezizwe zomthonyama zalapho. Kwakhona uJosephy uthi amagosa aseMerika ayesebenzisa “ukunyoba, izisongelo, utywala, nokusetyenziswa kwabameli abangekho mthethweni ukuzama ukuhlutha umhlaba kumaDelaware, amaWyandot, amaOttawa, amaChippewa [okanye amaOjibwa], amaShawnee, nakwezinye izizwe zaseOhio.” Akumangalisi ukuba kungabanga thuba lide amaIndiya aqala ukungabathembi abelungu nezithembiso zabo ezililize!

“Uhambo Olude” Nomzila Weenyembezi

Xa kwaqhambuka iMfazwe Yamakhaya yaseMerika (ngowe-1861-65), amajoni emka kwilizwe elalihlala amaNavajo kuMzantsi-ntshona. AmaNavajo asebenzisa eli thuba ukuhlasela iindawo ezihlala amaMerika namaMexico eRio Grande Valley kummandla wase New Mexico. Urhulumente wathumela uMphathi-mkhosi uKit Carson neqela lakhe ekuthiwa yiNew Mexico Volunteers ukuba ohlwaye amaNavajo aze awafudusele kwisiqwenga somhlaba esasibekelwe bucala esiyinkqantosi esibizwa ngokuba yiBosque Redondo. UCarson wasebenzisa inkqubo yokutshabalalisa ukutya ukuze kungafunyanwa lutshaba ukuze amaNavajo alambe aze awakhuphe kwiCanyon de Chelly entle ngokukhethekileyo, nekumntla-mpuma weArizona. Watshabalalisa nemithi yeepesika engaphezu kwama-5000.

UCarson wahlanganisa abantu abangama-8000 waza wabanyanzelela ukuba bathabathe “Uhambo Olude” lweekhilomitha ezimalunga nama-500 ukuya kwinkampu yamabanjwa yaseBosque Redondo eFort Sumner, eNew Mexico. Ingxelo ithi: “Imozulu yayiqhaqhazelis’ amazinyo, yaye uninzi lweembacu ezazambethe amajacu nezazingondlekanga zafa endleleni.” Iimeko zazinzima kakhulu kumhlaba ababekwa kuwo. AmaNavajo anyanzeleka ukuba embe imingxuma emhlabeni ezama ukufumana indawo yokufak’ intloko. Ngowe-1868, emva kokuqonda impazamo enkulu ayenzileyo, urhulumente wanika amaNavajo umhlaba oziihektare ezili-1,4 lezigidi kumhlaba wookhokho bawo eArizona naseNew Mexico. Abuyela kuwo, kodwa hayi indlela awatsala nzima ngayo ngaphambi kokubuyela apho!

Phakathi kowe-1820 nowe-1845, amashumi amawaka amaChoctaw, amaCherokee, amaChickasaw, amaCreek, namaSeminoles asuswa kwimihlaba yawo ekuMzantsi-mpuma aza anyanzelelwa ukuba aye ngasentshona, ngasentla koMlambo iMississippi, kwindawo ngoku ekuthiwa yiOklahoma, abanye basiwa kwiindawo ezikude kangangamakhulukhulu eekhilomitha. Kwimozulu eqhaqhazelis’ amazinyo yasebusika abaninzi bafa. Ukunyanzeliswa kwabo ukuba baye ngasentshona kwaduma kakubi njengoMzila Weenyembezi.

Okungekho sikweni okwenziwa kumaMerika Omthonyama kuchazwa ngokubhekele phaya ngamazwi enjengele yaseMerika uGeorge Crook, owayezingela amaSioux namaCheyenne emantla. Wathi: “Kunqabile ukufane uve indlela amaIndiya avakalelwa ngayo ngalo mbandela. . . . Kamva xa kwaqalisa imvukelo [yamaIndiya] ingqalelo yabantu yaguqulelwa kuwo, kugxekwa ulwaphulo-mthetho nezenzo zawo zenkohlakalo, ngoxa abantu ababesenza okungekho sikweni okuwaqhubele kwezi zenzo bejongwa njengabamsulwa . . . Akukho mntu uwazi kakuhle lo mbandela kunamaIndiya, ngoko ayathetheleleka xa ebona ukungabikho sikweni kurhulumente owohlwayayo nje kuphela, ngoxa evumela abelungu ukuba bawaphange ngendlela abafuna ukwenza ngayo.”—Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee.

Aqhuba njani amaMerika Omthonyama namhlanje emva kweminyaka engaphezu kwekhulu yokuphathwa ngamaNgesi? Ngaba asengozini yokunyamalala ngenxa yokuzenza inxalenye yolunye uhlanga? Analiphi ithemba ngekamva? Inqaku elilandelayo liza kuqwalasela le mibuzo neminye.

[Ibhokisi ekwiphepha 21]

Ubomi Obunzima Kumabhinqa

Ngoxa amadoda ayengabazingeli nabaphumi-mkhosi kwizizwe ezininzi, amabhinqa ayenemisebenzi engapheliyo, equka ukukhulisa abantwana, ukulima nokuvuna ingqolowa, aze ayisile ibe ngumgubo. UColin Taylor uthi: “Indima ephambili yamabhinqa ahlala kwiiPlains . . . yayikukulondoloza ikhaya, ukuba nabantwana nokulungiselela ukutya. Kwakhona kwiindawo ekulinywayo kuzo anyamekela amasimi, . . . ngoxa, kwimeko yeentlanga zasentshona ezaziphila ngokuzingela iinyathi, ayencedisa ekuxheleni, azise inyama enkampini aze emva koko alungise le nyama nezikhumba azilungiselele ukuba zisetyenziswe kwixesha elizayo.”—The Plains Indians.

Enye incwadi ithi ngokuphathelele ama-Apache: “Umsebenzi wasefama wawusenziwa ngamabhinqa yaye oku kwakungawathobi isidima okanye kuwenze abonakale ephantsi. Amadoda ayencedisa, kodwa amabhinqa ayezimisele ngakumbi ekulimeni kunamadoda. . . . Amabhinqa ayesoloko eyazi indlela yokugcina izithethe ezinxulumene nokulima. . . . Inkoliso yamabhinqa yayithandaza ngoxa inkcenkceshela umhlaba.”—The Native Americans—An Illustrated History.

Kwakhona amabhinqa ayesenza iindawo zokuhlala zokwexeshana ezibizwa ngokuba ziitepee, ngokuqhelekileyo ezazihlala kangangeminyaka emibini. Babezimisa baze bazichithe xa kufuneka isizwe sifudukile. Ngokungathandabuzekiyo, amabhinqa ayephila ubomi obunzima. Kodwa kwakunjalo nangamadoda abo njengoko ayelondoloze isizwe. Amabhinqa ayehlonelwe yaye ayenamalungelo amaninzi. Kwezinye izizwe, ezinjengamaHopi, unanamhla umhlaba ngowamabhinqa.

[Ibhokisi/Umfanekiso okwiphepha 22]

Isilwanyana Esaguqula Ilizwe Lawo

AmaNgesi eza nesinye isilwanyana kuMntla Merika esaguqula indlela yokuphila yezizwe ezininzi—ihashe. Ngenkulungwane ye-17, abantu baseSpeyin baba ngabokuqala ukuza namahashe kweli lizwekazi. AmaMerika Omthonyama aba ziincutshe ekukhweleni amahashe ngaphandle kweesali, njengoko amaNgesi angabaphangi akhawuleza akufumanisa oko. Besebenzisa amahashe abemi bomthonyama babekwazi ukuzingela iinyathi ngokulula ngakumbi. Yaye nezizwe ezihambahambayo zazikwazi ukuhlasela izizwe ezingabamelwane bazo ezihlala kwiidolophana ezilungelelaniswe kakuhle zize ngaloo ndlela zithimbe impahla, abafazi, namakhoboka.

[Imaphu/Umfanekiso okwiphepha 19]

(Ukuba ufuna inkcazelo ehlahlelwe kakuhle, yiya kwimpapasho)

Iindawo ezazihlala ezinye izizwe kuMntla Merika ngenkulungwane ye-17

Kutenai

Spokan

Nez Perce

Shoshone

Klamath

Northern Paiute

Miwok

Yokuts

Serrano

Mohave

Papago

Blackfoot

Flathead

Crow

Ute

Hopi

Navajo

Jicarilla

Apache

Mescalero

Lipan

Plains Cree

Assiniboin

Hidatsa

Mandan

Arikara

Teton

Cheyenne

Sioux

Yankton

Pawnee

Arapaho

Oto

Kansa

Kiowa

Comanche

Wichita

Tonkawa

Atakapa

Yanktonai

Santee

Iowa

Missouri

Osage

Quapaw

Caddo

Choctaw

Ojibwa

Sauk

Fox

Kickapoo

Miami

Illinois

Chickasaw

Alabama

Ottawa

Potawatomi

Erie

Shawnee

Cherokee

Catawba

Creek

Timucua

Algonquian

Huron

Iroquois

Susquehanna

Delaware

Powhatan

Tuscarora

Micmac

Malecite

Abnaki

Sokoki

Massachuset

Wampanoag

Narragansett

Mohegan

Montauk

[Inkcazelo]

Indian: Artwork based on photograph by Edward S. Curtis; North America: Mountain High Maps® Copyright © 1995 Digital Wisdom, Inc.

[Imifanekiso ekwiphepha 20]

Ukuluka nokwenza izinto zamatye anqabileyo zamaNavajo anobuchule

[Umfanekiso okwiphepha 23]

ICanyon de Chelly, indawo olwaqala kuyo “Uhambo Olude”