Inkulungwane Ebizaliswe Lugonyamelo
UALFRED NOBEL wayecinga ukuba iintlanga zingaseluxolweni xa zinokuba nezixhobo eziyingozi. Ngapha koko, iintlanga zaziza kumanyana zize ngokukhawuleza zibethe zitshayele nabani na ofuna ukudal’ uqhushululu. Wabhala wathi: “Loo nto ingayiphelisa imfazwe.” Xa siphinda amazwi kaNobel, alukho uhlanga olubhadlileyo olunokuxhokonxa imfazwe xa imiphumo yayo ibiya kuthwaxa kwalona. Kodwa kwenzeke ntoni kwinkulungwane edluleyo?
Kuthe kungekapheli neminyaka engama-20 efile uNobel yaqhambuka iMfazwe Yehlabathi I. Kule mfazwe kwasetyenziswa izixhobo ezitsha eziyingozi, phakathi kwazo kukho iingadla-ngadla zemipu, iigesi ezinetyhefu, imijukujelwa yomlilo, iinqwelo ezinkulu zemfazwe, iinqwelo-moya neenkwili. Kwabulawa amajoni amalunga nezigidi ezilishumi, kwaza kwenzakala aliphinda kabini elo nani. Indlela eyayimanyumnyezi ngayo iMfazwe Yehlabathi I yabangela ukuba abantu balufune ngamandla uxolo. Ngenxa yoko kwasekwa uManyano Lwezizwe. UMongameli waseUnited States uWoodrow Wilson, owayeququzelela ukusekwa kwalo, wathiwa jize ngeMbasa Yoxolo kaNobel ngowe-1919.
Kodwa amathemba okuba imfazwe yayingasayi kubuya ibekho, athi shwaka ngowe-1939 xa kwaqhambuka iMfazwe Yehlabathi II. Yona yaba manyumnyezi ngaphezu kweMfazwe Yehlabathi I. Ebudeni bale mfazwe uAdolf Hitler wawandisa umzi-mveliso kaNobel owawuseKrümmel waba ngowona mzi-mveliso wezixhobo mkhulu eJamani, yaye abantu ababesebenza apho babengaphezu kwama-9 000. Emva kokuphela kwaloo mfazwe, iziqhushumbisi ezingaphezu kwewaka ezagityiselwa yimikhosi yomoya eManyeneyo kumzi-mveliso walo kaNobel zawushiya uyingqushu. Into ehlekisayo kukuba le mikhosi yasebenzisa ubuchule bokwenza iibhombu obabuze nalo kaNobel.
Malunga nenkulungwane emva kokuba efile uNobel kwabakho nezinye iimfazwe ezininzi ngaphandle kweemfazwe ezimbini zehlabathi. Zininzi izixhobo eziveliswe kule nkulungwane, yaye ezinye zazo ziyingozi gqitha. Cinga nje ngezinye zezixhobo eziye zasetyenziswa kumashumi eminyaka emva kokufa kukaNobel.
Izixhobo ezincinane kwanezilula. Ezi ziquka imipu emincinane, oombayimbayi, iziqhushumbisi, iingadla-ngadla zemipu, iinkanunu nezinye izixhobo ezilula. Izixhobo ezincinane kwanezilula azibizi mali ingako, kulula ukuzilungisa yaye kulula nokuzisebenzisa.
Ngaba ubukho bezi zixhobo—nokuba sisisongelo kwazo ebantwini—kuye kwabangela ukuba kungabikho mfazwe? Nakanye! KwiBulletin of the Atomic Scientists, uMichael Klare uthi izixhobo ezilula ziye “zaba zezona zisetyenziswayo kwiimfazwe ezininzi ebezisiliwa emva kweMfazwe Yomlomo.” Eneneni, abantu abangama-90 ekhulwini baye bangxwelerhwa ngezi zixhobo kwiimfazwe zakutshanje. Ebudeni beminyaka yee-1990 kuphela, kubulewe abantu abangaphezu kwezigidi ezine kwangezi zixhobo. Kwiimeko ezininzi, ezi zixhobo zincinane ziye zasetyenziswa lulutsha olungakhange luqeqeshelwe ukuzisebenzisa nolungayikhathalele nganto imithetho yemfazwe.
Izigcayiseli. Ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane yama-20, abantu abamalunga nama-70 baye bashunquka amalungu athile omzimba okanye babulawa zizigcayiseli mihla le! Uninzi lwabo belungenanto yakwenza nemfazwe. Eyona njongo yokufakwa kwezigcayiseli kukushunqula abantu amalungu athile omzimba, nokubenza bankwantye abo babona umonakalo eziwenzayo kungekhona ukubabulala.
Kuyavunywa ukuba, kwiminyaka yakutshanje kuye kwenziwa imigudu yokushenxisa izigcayiseli. Kodwa abanye bathi ngoxa kususwa isigcayiseli esinye, kukho ezinye ezingama-20 ezifakwayo yaye kusenokwenzeka ukuba kukho izigcayiseli ezingama-60 ezigidi ehlabathini lonke. Nakuba isigcayiseli siqhushumba enoba kunyathela ijoni okanye umntwana ozidlalelayo loo nto ayikhange ibangele ukuba abantu bayeke ukwenza nokusebenzisa ezi zixhobo zoyikekayo.
Izixhobo zenyukliya. Ngenxa yokwenziwa kwezixhobo zenyukliya, isixeko siphela sinokutshatyalaliswa ngemizuzwana nje, kungakhange kubekho ngquzulwano phakathi kwamajoni. Ngokomzekelo, khawucinge nje ngentshabalalo eyabangelwa ziibhombu zeathom eHiroshima naseNagasaki ngowe-1945. Ukukhanya okungaphaya kwengqondo kwashiya abanye abantu betyhaphakile. Bambi batyhefwa yimitha. Ukanti, abaninzi babulawa ngumlilo nefuthe. Kuqikelelwa ukuba bebonke abantu abafayo kwezi zixeko zozibini bamalunga nama-300 000!
Kakade ke, bambi basenokuthi ukusetyenziswa kwezo bhombu kwezo zixeko kwasindisa abantu abaninzi engebabefile ukuba kwakuliwe ngezixhobo eziqhelekileyo. Sekunjalo, bothuswe yile ndyikitya yokufa, abanye baqalisa ukuphembelela iinkokeli zezobupolitika ukuba zilawule indlela esisetyenziswa ngayo esi sixhobo soyikekayo. Eneneni, abaninzi boyikiswa kukubona ukuba izinto ezenziwe ngumntu ziyingozi kwakuye.
Ngaba luye lwakho uxolo ngenxa yokwenziwa kwezixhobo zenyukliya? Abanye bathi kunjalo. Bathi ubungqina baloo nto kukuba, ezi zixhobo zinamandla ziye azasetyenziswa ngaphezu kwesiqingatha senkulungwane. Noko ke, ukucinga kukaNobel ukuba izixhobo ezenzelwe indyikitya yokufa zaziya kuphelisa imfazwe akuyonyaniso, kuba kusaliwa nangoku ngezixhobo eziqhelekileyo. Ngapha koko, iCommittee on Nuclear Policy ithi kukho izixhobo zenyukliya ezingamawaka ezinokusetyenziswa nanini na. Yaye kweli xesha lokoyikwa kwabanqolobi, abaninzi banexhala loko kunokwenzeka ukuba nje izixhobo zenyukliya zinokufunyanwa ngabantu “abayingozi.” Kwanokuba zinokugcinwa ngabantu “abafanelekileyo,” kusekho ixhala lokuba xa kunokwenzeka ingozi kungakho ugqabhuko-dubulo olunokubangela intlekele ehlabathini lonke. Licacile elokuba kusekho ezi zixhobo ziyingozi, soze lubekho uxolo awayecinga ngalo uNobel.
Izixhobo zebhayoloji nezemichiza. Kwimfazwe eliwa ngezixhobo ezisasaza iintsholongwane eziyingozi kusetyenziswa izinto ezifana neanthrax, okanye intsholongwane ebangela ingqakaqha. Ingqakaqha le iyingozi kuba iyasulela. Kukwakho nezixhobo eziyingozi ezenziwe ngemichiza, ezifana negesi eyityhefu. Le michiza iyingozi yenziwa ngeendlela ezahlukahlukeneyo, yaye nangona ibingekho mthethweni kangangamashumi eminyaka, loo nto ayikuthintelanga ukusetyenziswa kwayo.
Ngaba ezi zixhobo zoyikekayo nezisisisongelo zenze ukuba abantu bavakalelwe ngendlela awayecinga ngayo uNobel—‘bothuke baze bachithachithe naloo mikhosi bebenayo’? Ngokwahlukileyo, boyikela ukuba ngenye imini ezi zixhobo ziya kusetyenziswa—kwanangamagangxa. Ngaphezu kweshumi leminyaka edluleyo, umalathisi weU.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency wathi: “Izixhobo ezenziwe ngemichiza zinokwenziwa nangubani na ukuba nje unofifi ngemfundo yemichiza.”
Ngokungathandabuzekiyo, alikho elinye ixesha elikhe laneemfazwe ezimasikizi njengenkulungwane yama-20. Njengoko kuqalisa inkulungwane yama-21, ibonakala ingenakwenzeka into yokuba kubekho uxolo—ingakumbi emva kokuhlasela kwabanqolobi kwisiXeko saseNew York naseWashington, D.C., ngoSeptemba 11, 2001. Kwiphephancwadi iNewsweek, uSteven Levy wabhala wenjenje: “Akukho mntu unokuyithandabuza into yokuba endaweni yokuba ubugcisa buphucule imeko yoluntu, buye banegalelo kubungendawo.” Waleka ngelithi: “Ngubani onokuyisombulula le ngxaki? Ukutyhubela imbali, abantu baye bacinga benza, baza bothuka kamva. Ukungafuni kwethu ukucinga kuzenza mandundu izinto.”
Sele sifunde ukuba ukuveliswa kweziqhushumbisi ezoyikekayo nezixhobo ezibulalayo kuwenze amfiliba amathemba okubakho koxolo kweli hlabathi. Ngoko, ngaba uxolo lwehlabathi liphupha nje?
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Ukulawula Indlela Esebenza Ngayo Initroglycerin
Ngowe-1846, uAscanio Sobrero, ingcali yemichiza yaseItali, wafumana initroglycerin, ioli enqumbululu ekwenziwa ngayo iziqhushumbisi. Wafumanisa ukuba iyingozi le oli. Ngoxa wayesebenza ngayo, kwabakho ugqabhuko-dubulo olwabangela ukuba ubuso balo kaSobrero busikwe kanobom ziingceba zeglasi, yaye wagqibela ngoko ukuyisebenzisa. Ngaphandle koko, lo kaSobrero wafumana enye ingxaki ngale oli: Xa eyigalele phantsi aze ayibethe ngehamile, kwakudubula loo nxalenye ayibethileyo kuphela.
UNobel wayibonel’ icebo yonke le nto xa wenza isiqhushumbisi ngokuthi chatha intwana yale oli kwelinye ichiza. Wandula ke ngowe-1865 lo kaNobel wenza isiqhushumbisi esinemekyuri esikwisingxobo esincinane waza wasifaka kule nitroglycerin.
Noko ke, kwakuseyingozi ukusebenzisa initroglycerin. Ngokomzekelo, ngowe-1864 kugqabhuko-dubulo olwenzeka kumzi-mveliso kaNobel owawungaphandle kweStockholm kwafa abantu abahlanu—kuquka umninawa kaNobel, uEmil. Umzi-mveliso kaNobel owawuseKrümmel, eJamani, watshatyalaliswa ziziqhushumbisi izihlandlo ezibini. Ukanti abanye abantu babesebenzisa le oli kwizibane, bepolisha ngayo izihlangu beyifaka nakumavili eenqwelo—nto leyo eyayiyingozi kakhulu. Kwanaxa kuqhekezwa iintaba, le oli yayingena ezimfanteni ize ibangele iingozi kamva.
Ngowe-1867, uNobel wenza idamanethi ngokudibanisa initroglycerin nekieselguhr, engesosiqhushumbisi. Igama elithi damanethi leza nalo kaNobel elithabatha kwigama lesiGrike elithi dynamis, elithetha “amandla.” Nangona zikho ezinye iziqhushumbisi ezenziwa nguNobel kamva, idamanethi isesesona siqhushumbisi sibalaseleyo kwawazenzayo.
Kambe ke, iziqhushumbisi zikaNobel zazingasetyenziselwa ukulwa kuphela. Ngokomzekelo, zasetyenziswa kakhulu xa kwakusakhiwa amatonela aseSt. Gotthard (ngowe-1872-82), xa kwakuqhekezwa amatye aphantsi kwamanzi kwiNew York’s East River (ngowe-1876, nangowe-1885), naxa kwakusimbiwa iCorinth Canal yaseGrisi (ngowe-1881-93). Noko ke, ukususela kwixesha lokwenziwa kwayo, idamanethi yaduma ngokuba sisixhobo sokutshabalalisa nokubulala.
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Isikhululo samapolisa saseKholombiya esabethwa ngedamanethi sayingqushu
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© Reuters NewMedia Inc./CORBIS
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Ingaphelanga neminyaka engama-20 efile uNobel, kwiMfazwe Yehlabathi I kwasetyenziswa izixhobo ezitsha eziyingozi
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U.S. National Archives photo
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Amaxhoba ezigcayiseli eKhambodiya, eIraq, naseAzerbaijan
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UN/DPI Photo 186410C by P.S. Sudhakaran
UN/DPI Photo 158314C by J. Isaac
UN/DPI Photo by Armineh Johannes
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ICommittee on Nuclear Policy ithi kukho izixhobo zenyukliya ezingamawaka ezinokusetyenziswa nanini na
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UNITED NATIONS/PHOTO BY SYGMA
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Ubungozi bezixhobo zemichiza baqala ukuba ngundaba-mlonyeni emva kokubulawa kwabantu nge-“sarin” kwisikhululo sikaloliwe ohamba ngaphantsi komhlaba eTokyo ngowe-1995
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Asahi Shimbun/Sipa Press
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UN/DPI Photo 158198C by J. Isaac