Ioli—Ifumaneka Njani?

“MAKUBEKHO ukukhanya.” Ngenkulungwane ye-19, elaseUnited States lalifuna indlela yokukhanyisa entsha eyayiza kuthabath’ indawo yoofinyafuthi ababengakhanyisi kakuhle ababesebenza ngamafutha, amafutha omnenga nangezinye izinto. Saba yintoni isicombululo? Yaba kukusetyenziswa kweoli! Kodwa yayiza kuvela phi?

Ngowe-1859, uEdwin L. Drake owayekade esebenza kwisiporo sikaloliwe wasebenzisa injini esebenza ngomphunga, womba kangangeemitha ezingama-22 waza okwesihlandlo sokuqala ezimbalini, wafumana ioli ekrwada kufuphi neTitusville, ePennsylvania, eUnited States. Kwaqala ngelo xesha ke ukusetyenziswa kweoli. Njengoko ioli yayifumaneka kwiindawo ezininzi ehlabathini, yaba nefuthe elikhulu kwezoqoqosho nakwezobupolitika. Yaba yeyona ndlela yokukhanyisa ihamba phambili eyayikade ijongwe ngamehlw’ abomvu lihlabathi.

Kungekudala emva koko, kwathengwa umhlaba buphuthuphuthu kwaza kombiwa ioli kwiindawo ezininzi eUnited States. Kuloo minyaka, kwakuyinto eqhelekileyo ukuva ngabantu abaye bazizityebi bumini baze abanye babo baphulukane nobo butyebi. Okuhlekisayo kukuba, naye uEdwin Drake, indoda eyomba umthombo weoli wokuqala ePennsylvania, waphulukana nabo bonke ubutyebi bakhe.

Phezu kwako nje ukusetyenziswa kakhulu kweoli, ishishini leoli ePennsylvania lakhawuleza lajamelana nokuhla kwamaxabiso. Ixabiso leoli lehla ukusuka kuma-20 eedola umphanda, laya kutsho kwiisenti ezili-10 umphanda! Ukuveliswa kweoli eninzi ngokugqithiseleyo noqikelelo olungachananga ngexabiso layo kwabangela ukuba ehle amaxabiso, yaye eminye imithombo yakhawuleza yoma. Umzekelo woku ngowento eyenzeka ePithole City, ePennsylvania, engasenabemi ngoku. Emva kokusekwa kwayo, yakhula ngokukhawuleza kodwa abemi bayo bayishiya—kungaphelanga nonyaka onesiqingatha. La ngamahla-ndinyuka ebesoloko ekho kwishishini leoli.

Ngowe-1870, uJohn D. Rockefeller namahlakani akhe ambalwa baseka iStandard Oil Company. Le nkampani yankqenkqeza phambili kwishishini leparafini de kwavela ezinye iinkampani, ingakumbi iinkampani zeoli zaseRashiya. UMarcus Samuel waseka enye yezi nkampani, ngoku ebizwa ngokuba yiRoyal Dutch/Shell Group. Ngapha koko, oonyana bakaNobela ababezizilumko baseka ishishini leoli eRashiya yaye ioli babeyifumana kumathafa aseBaku.

Aqala ngaloo ndlela amashishini eoli amaninzi. Ukususela ngoko, kuye kwasekwa amaqela nemibutho emininzi ukuze kubekho ulungelelwano kwixabiso leoli nakwindlela eveliswa ngayo. Omnye wale mibutho yiOrganization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (i-OPEC), yaye amalungu alo mbutho ali-11 ngawona anemithombo yeoli ekrwada emininzi kwiindawo ezahlukahlukeneyo.—Bona ibhokisi ekwiphepha 7.

Ingakanani Ioli Ekhoyo Yaye Ifumaneka Phi?

Ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-19, kwakusele kusetyenziswa kakhulu umbane yaye loo nto yayinokubangela ukuba atshone amashishini eoli. Noko ke, kwaveliswa nto ithile eyatshintsha iimeko—iinqwelo-mafutha ezihamba ngenjini esebenza ngepetroli. Ezi nqwelo-mafutha, nezazisele zikho kumazwe afumileyo amaninzi ngasekupheleni kweminyaka yee-1920 zazihamba ngepetroli eyenziwe nge-petroleum. Ngoku, ukuze abantu babe nento yokuhamba, kwakufuneka ioli engakumbi, kodwa yayiza kuvela phi?

Njengoko yayihamba iminyaka, kuye kwafunyanwa amaziko eoli amatsha—amalunga nama-50 000—kumazwe ngamazwe nto leyo ebangele ukuba likhule ishishini leoli! Kodwa eyona nto ibalulekileyo ekuvelisweni kweoli, asilonani lemithombo efunyenweyo, kodwa bubukhulu bayo. Ngoko ke, mikhulu kangakanani le mithombo?

Eyona mithombo yeoli mikhulu yileyo kunokufumaneka kuyo ioli enokombiwa ize isetyenziswe emalunga nemiphanda engamawaka amahlanu ezigidi kuze kulandele leyo kunokufumaneka kuyo ioli enokombiwa ize isetyenziswe emalunga nemiphanda engamakhulu amahlanu ezigidi ukusa kumawaka amahlanu ezigidi. Nangona i-“U.S. Geological Survey World Petroleum Assessment 2000” isithi ngamazwe angama-70 anemithombo yeoli, ambalwa kakhulu amazwe anemithombo yeoli emikhulu. (Bona ibhokisi ekwiphepha 7.) Eyona mithombo yeoli mikhulu mininzi ifumaneka kwimimandla esisidibi yama-Arabhu neyase-Iran ekwiPersian Gulf.

Isafunwa imithombo yeoli emitsha nangoku. Umahluko nje kukuba ngoku kusetyenziswa ubugcisa bezi mini obenza lo msebenzi ube lula. Ngoku abavelisi beoli bajolise ingqalelo yabo kwiindawo ezikuLwandle lweCaspian eziquka imimandla ehlala abantu baseAzerbaijan, eIran, eKazakhstan, eRashiya, eTurkmenistan naseUzbekistan. I-U.S. Energy Information Administration ithi kwezi ndawo kunokufumaneka ioli neegesi ezininzi. Kusahlolwa iindlela enokuthuthwa ngazo le oli, njengendlela enqumla eAfghanistan. Kukho nezinye iindawo ekucingelwa ukuba ioli inokufumaneka kuzo, njengakuMbindi Mpuma, eGreenland nakwiindawo ezithile zaseAfrika. Eny’ into ebangela umdla kukusetyenziswa kweehydrocarbons ukuze kuveliswe amandla nezinye izinto eziluncedo kubomi bemihla ngemihla.

Yombiwa Njani Ioli?

Izazinzulu ngomhlaba nabahloli beziza bakhangela iindawo enokufumaneka kuzo ioli ekrwada. Emva kokuhlolisisa umhlaba, ziyomba zize ziqinisekise ukuba ikho ngenene na ioli kuloo ndawo. Ngaphambili, abantu abomba ioli babedla ngokubona sele kutsaza udaka neoli luze lubachithele yaye oku kwakusiba yilahleko enkulu yaye kunokubangela nogqabhuko-dubulo. Noko ke, ngenxa yezixhobo zokuhlola ezikhoyo neevalve ezikhethekileyo, oku akwenzeki namhlanje. Ngoku sele kukho oomatshini bokomba imingxuma emincinane nenzulu.

Ukuze kuhle amandla abangela ukuba kutsaze ioli neegesi, kufakwa amanzi, imichiza ethile, ikharbhon diokside okanye ezinye iigesi ezifana nenitrojeni. Ioli ijiya ngeendlela ezahlukahlukeneyo kuxhomekeka kwindawo efumaneka kuyo. Ngokuqhelekileyo, eyona ithandwayo yioli engajiyanga kangako kuba kulula ukuyifumana nokuyipheka.

Ngokutsho kwe-American Petroleum Institute, ubugcisa bezi mini bunokwenza kombiwe kuxweswe ngaphantsi komhlaba nto leyo ebangela ukuba kombiwe imithombo embalwa. Ukombiwa kweoli elwandle, okwaqaliswa ngowe-1947 kwiGulf of Mexico kwabangela ukuba kuveliswe ioli eninzi. Kakade ke, indlela eyombiwe ngayo ioli iphembelela ixabiso layo.b

Ithuthwa Njani Ioli?

Ngowe-1863 ePennsylvania, kwenziwa imibhobho yeplanga emincinane ukuze kuhanjiswe ioli yaye le mibhobho yayibiza imali encinane yaye kwakulula ukuthutha ngayo ioli kunokusebenzisa imiphanda eziilitha ezili-159 eyayilayishwa kwiinqwelo zamahashe.c Namhlanje sele kusetyenziswa kakhulu imibhobho yezi mini. I-Association of Oil Pipe Lines ithi eUnited States kuphela kukho imibhobho ye-petroleum eziikhilomitha ezingama-300 000!

Imibhobho yezi mini eyenziwe ngentsimbi ayisetyenziswa nje kuphela xa kuhanjiswa ioli ekrwada isisiwa kwindawo ephekwa kuyo, kodwa ikwasetyenziswa naxa kuhanjiswa ioli isisiwa kubathengisi. Ubugcisa obusetyenziswa kwimibhobho yezi mini benza ukuba bakwazi ukuhlola ukuhamba kweoli. Kusetyenziswa izixhobo zobugcisa ezincinane kuze kuhlolwe imibhobho kangangamakhulu eekhilomitha. Sekunjalo ekuphela kwento ebonwa ngabantu luphawu olubonisa ukuba kuloo ndawo kukho umbhobho we-petroleum ohamba ngaphantsi komhlaba nesilumkiso sokuba kufanele kungombiwa kuloo ndawo.

Nangona kuluncedo ukusetyenziswa kwemibhobho xa kuhanjiswa ioli, kunzima xa isisiwa kumazwe angaphaya kweelwandle. Kodwa abantu ababekwishishini leoli mandulo basifumana isicombululo sale ngxaki—iinqanawa ezinkulu zokuthutha ioli. Ezi nqanawa zakhiwe ngendlela ekhethekileyo zimalunga neemitha ezingama-400 ubude. Zezona nqanawa zinkulu zakha zahamba elwandle yaye zinokuthwala isigidi semiphanda yeoli nangaphezulu. Ngelishwa, kukho ingxaki engenakuphepheka ngokusebenzisa ezi nqanawa zinkulu xa kuthuthwa ioli njengoko ibhokisi ethi “Ukuchitheka Kweoli” ibonisa. Enye indlela eqhelekileyo yokuthutha ioli eninzi kukusebenzisa izikhephe namakhareji kaloliwe. Noko ke, ukombiwa kweoli nokuthuthwa kwayo akuthethi kuthi umsebenzi uphelile.

Idangatye elincinane eliphuma kumbhobho omde—osebenza njengevalve—libonisa ukuba ujonge kwiziko leoli. Lilonke, kula maziko makhulu kutshiswa ioli ekrwada ize ithunyelwe kwi-atmospheric distillation tower, apho yahlulwa ibe zizinto ezahlukahlukeneyo. Kuyo, kusenokuphuma iigesi ezifana ne-butane okanye izinto zokuthambisa nezinye izinto. (Bona iphepha 8-9.) Kodwa kusekho umbuzo ofanele uphendulwe, ngaba ioli iyintsikelelo nesiqalekiso?

[Imibhalo esemazantsi]

[Ibhokisi/Umfanekiso okwiphepha 5]

NGABA KUSETYENZISWA IMIPHANDA OKANYE IITONI?

Iinkampani zeoli zokuqala zasePennsylvania zazisebenzisa imiphanda yewayini eziilitha ezili-180 xa zithutha ioli ngeenqanawa. Ekugqibeleni kwasetyenziswa imiphanda eziilitha ezili-159 kuphela ukuze ingachitheki ioli xa ihanjiswa ngenqanawa. Kusasetyenziswa imiphanda (eziilitha ezili-159) nanamhlanje.

Kwasekuqaleni, ioli yaseYurophu yayithuthwa ngolwandle yaye ubunzima bayo babulinganiswa ngeetoni yaye kusenjalo nanamhlanje.

[Inkcazelo]

Source: American Petroleum Institute

[Ibhokisi ekwiphepha 6]

YAYILEKA NJANI I-PETROLEUM?

Ukususela kwiminyaka yee-1870, izazinzulu ezininzi bezisoloko zicinga ukuba i-petroleum yavela kwizinto eziphilayo. Zazikholelwa ukuba “ekugqibeleni inkunkuma engaphantsi komhlaba iba yioli neegesi ezithi zihlale phakathi kwamatye ngaphantsi [koMhlaba].” Le nkqubo ibangela kuvele i-petroleum eyilwa ziihydrocarbons—i-hydrogen ne-carbon. Noko ke, ukususela kwiminyaka yee-1970, ezinye izazinzulu ziye zakuthandabuza ukuchana kwale ngcamango.

Kwinkupho yayo ka-Agasti 20, 2002, i-Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences yapapasha inqaku elinomxholo othi “Imvelaphi Yee-hydrocarbons Ne-petroleum.” Ababhali beli nqaku bathi kumele ukuba i-petroleum yavela “kumbindi woMhlaba” kungekhona kwiindawo nje ezizizidibi ebekusoloko kucingwa ukuba yavela kuzo.

Unjingalwazi Thomas Gold, osisazi ngenzululwazi yezinto eziphilayo waveza iingcamango ezahlukileyo waza wachaza izizathu zoko ngokulandelelana kwazo kwincwadi yakhe ethi The Deep Hot Biosphere—The Myth of Fossil Fuels. Ubhala enjenje: “Ingcamango yokuba ii-hydrocarbons zavela kwizinto eziphilayo okanye kwinkunkuma engaphantsi komhlaba yayithandwa kakhulu eUnited States nakwiindawo ezininzi eYurophu kangangokuba akukhange kunikelwe ngqalelo kwezinye iingcamango ezahlukileyo kuleyo. Kwakungenjalo kumazwe awayesakuba phantsi kweSoviet Union. Mhlawumbi oku kwakubangelwa kukuba isazi ngemichiza saseRashiya, uMendeleyev owayehlonelwa kakhulu wayexhasa ingcamango yokuba i-petroleum ayiveli kwizinto eziphilayo. Wabeka izizathu ezivakalayo nanamhlanje, ekubeni sele sinolwazi olungakumbi ngalo mbandela.” Wayexhasa yiphi ingcamango?

Lo ka kaGold uthi: “Ingcamango endinayo kukuba ii-hydrocarbons ziyinxalenye yezinto ezayila umhlaba kumawaka ezigidi zeminyaka emi-4.5 eyadlulayo.” Ngokutsho kwale ngcamango, izinto eyilwe ngazo i-petroleum bezikho emhlabeni ukususela ekudalweni kwawo.d

[Umbhalo osemazantsi]

[Ibhokisi/Umfanekiso okwiphepha 10, 11]

UKUCHITHEKA KWEOLI

◼ Ukususela ngowe-1970 ukusa kowama-2000, iinqanawa ziye zachitha ioli eziitoni ezizizi-5 322 000

◼ Eyona oli ininzi yachitheka ngowe-1979 xa iAtlantic Empress yangquzulana neAegean Captain kwiCaribbean, apho kwachitheka ioli eziitoni ezingama-287 000

◼ Nangona ioli eninzi ichitheka xa ilayishwa, isothulwa okanye isithiwa kwinqanawa, eyona ininzi ichitheka xa zingquzulana okanye zizika elwandle

◼ Ezinye iindlela echitheka ngazo ioli ngaphandle kokuchitheka kwayo kwiinqanawa ezinkulu:

● Ugqabhuko olwenzeka kwiziko lokuhlola ioli elibizwa ngokuba yi-Ixtoc I ngowe-1979 kwiGulf of Mexico. Kwachitheka ioli eziilitha ezizizi-500 000 000

● Ugqabhuko olwenzeka kwiqonga lokulayisha ioli kwiziko leoli kwiPersian Gulf ngowe-1983. Kwachitheka ioli eziilitha ezizizi-300 000 000

● Ukuchithwa ngabom kweoli ngowe-1991 kwiPersian Gulf. Kwachithwa ioli eziilitha ezizizi-900 000 000

[Umfanekiso]

Ukuzika kwenqanawa enkulu yokuthutha ioli u-“Erika” kufuphi nePenmarch Point, eFransi ngoDisemba 13, 1999

[Inkcazelo]

Sources: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, “Oil Spill Intelligence Report,” “The Encarta Encyclopedia”

© La Marine Nationale, France

[Umzobo/Imifanekiso ekwiphepha 8, 9]

(Ukuba ufuna inkcazelo ehlahlelwe kakuhle, yiya kwimpapasho)

UKUVELISWA KWEOLI KUCHAZWE NGENDLELA ELULA

1—UKUHLOLWA KWAYO

I-SATELLITE

Kusetyenziswa i-Global Positioning System, kuhlolwa ngokuchanileyo iindawo ezineoli

II-GEOPHONES

I-VIBRATOR TRUCK

II-HYDROPHONES

I-SEISMIC VESSEL

Enye yeendlela ezisetyenziswayo ukuhlola izandi zamaza ngaphantsi komhlaba ibizwa ngokuba yi-Seismic surveying

2—UKOMBIWA KWAYO

IMITHOMBO ESEMHLABENI

IQONGA ELISELWANDLE

UMTHOMBO ONGAPHANTSI KWAMANZI

Ioli yombiwa emhlabeni, elwandle nangaphantsi kwamanzi. Ukuze ingatsazi xa kusombiwa, kufakwa iigesi okanye amanzi

[Umfanekiso]

UMTHOMBO WEOLI ONGAPHANTSI KWAMANZI

Imithombo engaphantsi kolwandle yakhiwa ngeenkwili ezilawulwa ngumntu okwenye indawo

[Umfanekiso]

UKOMBIWA NGAPHANTSI KOMHLABA

Kombiwa ngaphantsi komhlaba kusetyenziswa izixhobo ezilawulwa ngumntu okwenye indawo yaye ezi zixhobo ziyakwazi nokuhlola uhlobo lwamatye ekombiwa kuwo

3—UKUTHUNYELWA KWAYO KWEZINYE IINDAWO

IMIBHOBHO

INQANAWA ENKULU

Ithunyelwa ngemibhobho ehamba ngaphezu komhlaba, ngaphantsi komhlaba nangaphantsi kolwandle. Ezinye iindlela ziquka ukusetyenziswa kweenqanawa ezinkulu, izikhephe noololiwe

4—UKUPHEKWA KWAYO

IZIKO LAYO

Ioli ekrwada iyaphekwa, ihluzwe ize yahlulwe ibe zizinto ezahlukahlukeneyo

I-DISTILLATION TOWER

Xa kutshiswa ioli ekrwada ejiyileyo, ii-hydrocarbons ziba ziigesi. Ezi gesi ziphinda zibe lulwelo kumaqondo obushushu awahlukahlukeneyo. Ngaloo ndlela, ioli yahlulwa ibe zizinto ezahlukahlukeneyo

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I-CATALYTIC CRACKER

Kusetyenziswa umphunga otshisayo, kudityaniswa ii-hydrocarbons ne-catalyst eshushu engumgubo we-alumina-silica gel. Le nkqubo yahlukanisa ii-hydrocarbons zibe ziimolekyuli ezincinane ezininzi ezinokusetyenziswa

Umphunga otshisayo udibanisa i-catalyst engumgubo nee-hydrocarbons

↓ ↓ ↓

[Inkcazelo]

Photo Courtesy of Phillips Petroleum Company

[Igrafu ekwiphepha 7]

(Ukuba ufuna inkcazelo ehlahlelwe kakuhle, yiya kwimpapasho)

AWONA MAZWE KUFUMANEKA KUWO IOLI

Isimbuku sibonisa amawaka ezigidi emiphanda. Le ngxelo ayiquki imithombo engekafunyanwa

▪ Lilungu le-OPEC

• Ilizwe elinomthombo omkhulu omnye okanye engaphezulu

Iveliswa ngokuqhubekayo

◆ Imithombo

▪ • ◆ 332.7 ESAUDI ARABIA

• ◆ 216.5 EUNITED STATES

• ◆ 192.6 ERASHIYA

▪ • ◆ 135.9 EIRAN

▪ • ◆ 130.6 EVENEZUELA

▪ • ◆ 125.1 EKUWAIT

▪ • ◆ 122.8 EIRAQ

▪ • ◆ 113.3 EUNITED ARAB EMIRATES

• ◆ 70.9 EMEXICO

• ◆ 42.9 ETSHAYINA

▪ • ◆ 41.9 ELIBYA

▪ ◆ 33.4 ENIGERIA

◆ 21.2 EKHANADA

▪ ◆ 21.0 EINDONESIA

◆ 20.5 EKAZAKHSTAN

▪ • ◆ 18.3 EALGERIA

◆ 17.6 ENORWAY

◆ 16.9 EUNITED KINGDOM

[Imifanekiso ekwiphepha 4]

Iziko leoli ekrwada lokuqala, eTitusville, ePennsylvania ngowe-1859

Ukutsaza kweoli kwiziko laseTexas

[Inkcazelo]

Brown Brothers

[Umfanekiso okwiphepha 5]

Umthombo weoli wokuqala eBeaumont, eTexas

[Umfanekiso okwiphepha 5]

Inqwelo etsalwa ngamahashe ekwakuthuthwa ngayo imiphanda yeoli

[Umfanekiso okwiphepha 10]

Ukutsha kweziko leoli eKuwait

[Inkcazelo Ngomfanekiso okwiphepha 5]

All photos: Brown Brothers