Umlo Ekudala Ukho Wokufuna Impilo Ebhetele

UJOANNE wayehlala eNew York, yaye wayenesifo sephepha. Kodwa esakhe isifo sephepha yayingesiso esiqhelekileyo. Wayenohlobo lwesifo sephepha esinganyangekiyo esibulala isiqingatha samaxhoba aso. Kodwa, uJoanne akazange afune unyango, ngoko wayesele asulele abanye ngaso. ‘Umele avalelwe yedwa,’ watsho ugqirha wakhe owayexakanisekile.

Isifo sephepha ngumbulali omdala. Zizigidi zabantu abaye bahlaselwa baza babulawa sisifo sephepha. Ubungqina boko buye bafumaneka kwizidumbu ezaqholwayo zagcinwa zaseYiputa nasePeru. Namhlanje, iintlobo ezithile zesifo sephepha zibulala abantu abamalunga nezigidi ezibini minyaka le.

UCarlitos, wayethe tywaa kumandlalo omncinane kwinqugwala elithile eAfrika, ibunzi lakhe lalibile xhopho. Imalariya yamtsho akabi nawo nawokukhala amandla. Abazali bakhe ababexhalabile babengenayo imali yamayeza, yaye kwakungekho kliniki ikufutshane apho wayenokunyangwa khona umntwana wabo. Loo fiva ayizange iyekelele, yaye kwiiyure nje ezingama-48 wayesele efile.

NjengoCarlitos phantse babe sisigidi abantwana ababulawa yimalariya rhoqo ngonyaka. Kwiidolophana zaseMpuma Afrika, abantwana abaninzi batyiwa ziingcongconi ezithwala imalariya izihlandlo ezingama-50 ukusa kwezingama-80 ngenyanga. Ezi ngcongconi zidlulela kwimimandla emitsha, yaye amayeza okulwa nemalariya akasebenzi kakuhle. Minyaka le, baqikelelwa kuma-300 ezigidi abantu abanemalariya.

UKenneth, indoda eneminyaka engama-30 ubudala ehlala eSan Francisco, eCalifornia, waqala ukuya kugqirha wakhe ngowe-1980. Wayekhala ngokuhambisa kwesisu nokudinwa. Emva konyaka wafa. Phezu kwalo nje unyango lweengcali awayelufumana, waya ephela de ekugqibeleni wafa ebulawa yinyumoniya.

Kwiminyaka emibini kamva, kummandla weekhilomitha ezili-16 000 ukusuka eSan Francisco, ibhinqa eliselula kumntla weTanzania lahlaselwa sisifo esifanayo. Kwiiveki nje ezimbalwa lalingakwazi ukuhamba, yaye kungekudala emva koko lafa. Abantu balapho bathi eso sifo singaziwayo sisifo sikaJuliana kuba kwacaca ukuba yena namanye amabhinqa alapho basulelwe ngeso sifo yindoda eyayithengisa amalaphu abhalwe igama elithi Juliana.

Bobabini uKenneth nebhinqa laseTanzania babenesifo esifanayo: uGawulayo. Ekuqaleni kweminyaka yee-1980, xa kanye kwakubonakala ngathi inzululwazi yamayeza izilwe zaphela iintsholongwane eziyingozi, kwathi gqi esi sifo sasulelayo yaye saluphazamisa uluntu. Kwiminyaka nje engamashumi amabini inani labantu ababulawa nguGawulayo lenyuka laya kufikelela kwelo labantu ababulawa ngubhubhani e-Eurasia kwinkulungwane ye-14—ubhubhani ongasoze ulityalwe eYurophu.

Ukufa Okumnyama

Lo bhubhani kuthiwa Kukufa Okumnyama wabakho emva kowe-1347, xa kwafika inqanawa yaseCrimea eMessina, kwisiqithi saseSicily. Ukongezelela kumthwalo wayo oqhelekileyo, le nqanawa yayithwele nesifo esingubhubhani.a Ngokukhawuleza Ukufa Okumnyama, kwasasazeka kuyo yonke i-Itali.

Kunyaka olandelayo uAgnolo di Tura, waseSiena, eItali, echaza imeko ebuhlungu yedolophu yakhe wathi: ‘Abantu baqala ukufa eSiena ngoMeyi. Yayimbi yaye iyintlungu yodwa into eyenzeka apho. Amaxhoba ayesifa ngokukhawuleza. Kwakusifa amakhulu, imini nobusuku.’ Wongezelela athi: ‘Ndangcwaba abantwana bam abahlanu ngezandla zam, yaye nabanye abantu babesenjenjalo. Kwakungekho mntu ukhalayo kungakhathaliseki ukuba ufelwe kangakanani kuba wonk’ umntu wayelindele ukufa. Kwafa abantu abaninzi kangangokuba sonke sasikholelwa ukuba kufike isiphelo sehlabathi.’

Abanye ababhali-mbali bathi, kwiminyaka nje emine loo bhubhani wagqiba yonk’ iYurophu yaye kwafa malunga nesinye kwisithathu sabantu balapho—mhlawumbi abantu abaphakathi kwezigidi ezingama 20 nama-30. Loo bhubhani waya kufikelela nakwi-Iceland ekude wafika watshayela kwanto iphambi konyawo. Kuthiwa kwiMpuma Ekude, abantu baseTshayina behla besuka kwizigidi ezili-123 ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane ye-13 baya kutsho kwizigidi ezingama-65 kwinkulungwane ye-14, ekucaca ukuba oko kwabangelwa nguloo bhubhani kunye nendlala.

Ngaphambi koko asikho esinye isifo, imfazwe okanye indlala eyakha yabangela intlungu engathethekiyo ngolo hlobo kulo lonke ilizwe. Incwadi ethi Man and Microbes ithi: “Leyo yaba yintlekele engazange ibonwe kwimbali yoluntu. Kwafa malunga nesiqingatha sabantu baseYurophu, eMntla Afrika nakwiindawo ezithile zaseAsia.”

Abantu baseMerika basinda koko Kufa Kumnyama, ngenxa yokuba bethe qelele kwamanye amazwe ehlabathi. Kodwa ukuhamba kweenqanawa zisiya apho kwakuphelisa oko kuzimela geqe. Kwinkulungwane ye-16, kwafika izifo ezabonakala ziyingozi ngakumbi kunobhubhani, zafika zagqugqisa kwelo laseMerika.

Ingqakaqha Igqugqisa Amazwe AseMerika

Ekufikeni kukaColumbus eWest Indies ngowe-1492, wathi abemi bomthonyama balapho ‘banembonakalo neempawu ezintle, baphakathi ngesithomo yaye banezoso.’ Noko ke, oko kubonakala kwabo besempilweni kwakufihle ubuthathaka babo kwizifo zaseYurophu.

Ngowe-1518 kwaqhambuka ingqakaqha kwisiqithi saseHispaniola. AmaMerika omthonyama ayengazange achanabeke kwingqakaqha ngaphambili, ibe imiphumo yoko yaba yintlekele yodwa. Ummi waseSpeyin owazibonela ngawakhe oko uqikelela ukuba ngabantu abaliwaka kuphela abasindayo kweso siqithi. Kungekudala eso sifo sanwenwela eMexico nasePeru, sisenza into efanayo.

Kwinkulungwane elandela leyo, ukufika kwaBahambi Ngezonqulo kummandla waseMassachusetts kuMntla Merika, bafumanisa ukuba ingqakaqha itshabalalise phantse bonke abemi balapho. Inkokeli yaBahambi Ngezonqulo uJohn Winthrop yathi: “Phantse bonke abemi bomthonyama balapha batshatyalaliswe yingqakaqha.”

Emva kwengqakaqha kwalandela ezinye izifo. Enye incwadi ithi, malunga nenkulungwane uColumbus efikile apho, izifo ezeza nabaphambukeli zazisele zitshabalalise abantu abangama-90 ekhulwini kubemi baseMerika. Abemi baseMexico bancipha besuka kwizigidi ezingama-30 baya kutsho kwezi-3, bona abasePeru basuka kwizigidi ezisi-8 baya kutsho kwesi-1. Kakade ke, asingobemi bomthonyama baseMerika kuphela amaxhoba engqakaqha. “Ukutyhubel’ imbali yabantu, ingqakaqha iye yabulala amakhulu ezigidi zabantu, inani elidlula lee kwelikabhubhani . . . nelazo zonke iimfazwe zenkulungwane yama-20 lidityanisiwe,” itsho njalo incwadi ethi Scourge—The Once and Future Threat of Smallpox.

Le Mfazwe Ayikapheli

Namhlanje, ezi zifo zoyikekayo, ubhubhani nengqakaqha zisenokubonakala njengentlekele yexesha elidluleyo. Kwinkulungwane yama-20, abantu baphumelela amadabi amaninzi nxamnye nezifo ezasulelayo, ngakumbi amazwe ahambele phambili kwezoqoqosho. Oogqirha bafumanisa oonobangela bezifo ezininzi kwaneendlela zokuzinyanga. (Bona ibhokisi ekwiphepha elilandelayo.) Amayeza amatsha okugonya nezibulali-ntsholongwane ayebonakala ngathi anyanga zonke izifo, nezona zinzima.

Noko ke, njengokuba uGqr. Richard Krause, owayesakuba ngumalathisi weU.S. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases ebonisa, “izifo ezingubhubhani azinakuphetshwa njengokuba ukufa nerhafu zingenakuphetshwa.” Isifo sephepha nemalariya azikapheli. Yaye kutshanje isifo uGawulayo sikhumbuza abantu ukuba iindyikitya zokufa zisaligqugqisa ihlabathi. “Izifo ezasulelayo zisengunobangela ophambili wokufa kwabantu ehlabathini; yaye kuseza kuhlala kunjalo ixesha elide,” itsho incwadi ethi Man and Microbes.

Abanye oogqirha boyikela ukuba phezu kwayo nje inkqubela ekulweni nezifo, impumelelo eyenziwe kula mashumi eminyaka adluleyo inokuba yinto nje yexeshana. “Isisongelo sezifo ezasulelayo asikapheli—kodwa siyanda,” ilumkisa itsho ingcali ngezifo ezigqugqisayo uRobert Shope. Inqaku elilandelayo liza kusicacisela isizathu soko.

[Umbhalo osemazantsi]

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Kwiminyaka nje engamashumi amabini inani labantu ababulawe nguGawulayo liye lafikelela kwelo labantu ababulawa ngubhubhani e-Eurasia kwinkulungwane ye-14

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Ulwazi Nxamnye Neenkolelo

Kwinkulungwane ye-14, xa Ukufa Okumnyama kwasongela indlu kapopu eAvignon, ugqirha wakhe wathi unobangela wako kukungqamana kwezijikelezi-langa ezithathu—uSaturn, uJupiter noMars—zidibana kwiAquarius.

Malunga neenkulungwane ezine kamva, uGeorge Washington waba nomqala obuhlungu. Oogqirha abathathu abahlonelwayo bazama ukunyanga eso sifo ngokukhupha igazi elimalunga neelitha ezimbini emithanjeni yakhe. Kwiiyure nje ezimbalwa emva koko wayesele efile. Ukukhupha igazi emithanjeni yomntu yindlela eyayisetyenziswa kangangeminyaka engama-2 500—ukususela kwixesha likaHippocrates de kwaba kwisiqingatha senkulungwane ye-19.

Nangona iinkolelo nezithethe ziye zabambezela inkqubela kwezamayeza, oogqirha abazinikeleyo basebenza nzima ukuze bafumane oonobangela bezifo ezasulelayo namayeza okuzinyanga. Apha ngezantsi kudweliswe imbinana yezinto abaphumelela kuzo.

◼ Ingqakaqha. Ngowe-1798, uEdward Jenner waphumelela ekuveliseni iyeza lokugonya ingqakaqha. Kwinkulungwane yama-20, ugonyo luye lwaphumelela ukuthintela izifo ezifana nepoliyo, iyellow fever nemasisi.

◼ Isifo sephepha. Ngowe-1882, uRobert Koch wafumanisa intsholongwane yesifo sephepha waza wenza uvavanyo lokunyanga esi sifo. Malunga neminyaka engama-60 kamva, kwaveliswa istreptomycin, isibulali-ntsholongwane esikwaziyo ukulwa nesifo sephepha. Eli chiza laphumelela nasekunyangeni ubhubhani.

◼ Imalariya. Ukususela kwinkulungwane ye-17 ukusa phambili, iyeza iquinine—elifunyanwa kwixolo lomthi wecinchona—liye lasindisa ubomi bezigidi zabantu abanemalariya. Ngowe-1897, uRonald Ross wafumanisa ukuba ziingcongconi ezibizwa ngokuba ziiAnopheles ezibangela isifo semalariya, ibe emva koko kwenziwa iinzame zokucutha iingcongconi ukuze kuncitshiswe inani labantu abafayo kumazwe akwiitropic.

[Imifanekiso]

Ibhodi yokuvumisa ngeenkwenkwezi (ngasentla) nokukhutshwa kwegazi emithanjeni

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Both: Biblioteca Histórica “Marqués de Valdecilla”

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Namhlanje, iintlobo ezithile zesifo sephepha zibulala abantu abamalunga nezigidi ezibini minyaka le

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X ray: New Jersey Medical School–National Tuberculosis Center; man: Photo: WHO/Thierry Falise

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Umkrolo waseJamani, ususela malunga nowama-1500, ubonisa ugqirha onxibe imask ezikhusela kuKufa Okumnyama. Umlomo wentaka wona uqulethe isiqholo

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Godo-Foto

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Intsholongwane ebangela ubhubhani

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© Gary Gaugler/Visuals Unlimited