Yintoni ITalmud?

“Alithandabuzeki elokuba iTalmud yenye yezona ncwadi zibalaseleyo zakhe zakho.”—The Universal Jewish Encyclopedia.

“[ITalmud] yenye yezona zinto zobulumko ephunyezwe ngumntu, uxwebhu oluntsokothe kakhulu, olunentsingiselo, nekunzima kakhulu ukuluqonda kangangokuba luye lwagcina iinkcuba-buchopho ezibalaseleyo zixakekile ngaphezu kwewaka leminyaka elinesiqingatha.”—Jacob Neusner, umphengululi kwanombhali ongumYuda.

“ITalmud yintsika [yobuYuda] exhasa zonke iimfundiso zokomoya nezobulumko zobomi bobuYuda.”—Adin Steinsaltz, umphengululi kwanorabhi weTalmud.

NGOKUNGATHANDABUZEKIYO iTalmud iye yanempembelelo enkulu kubantu abangamaYuda kangangeenkulungwane. Noko ke, ngokwahlukileyo kwindlela enconywa ngayo kula mazwi acatshulwe ngasentla, iTalmud iye yanyeliswa yaza yabizwa “njengemfungumfungu yento engaqondakaliyo nebhidayo.” Iye yabizwa ngokuba yincwadi kaMtyholi yokunyelisa. Ngokomyalelo kapopu, ngokuphindaphindiweyo iye yagqogqwa, yathinjwa, yada yatshiswa ngokobuninzi bayo kwiindawo zikawonke wonke zaseYurophu.

Eneneni yintoni equlethwe yile ncwadi eye yabangela impikiswano engaka? Yintoni eyenza iTalmud ibaluleke kangaka phakathi kwemibhalo yamaYuda? Kwakutheni ukuze ibhalwe? Kwakutheni ukuze ibe nempembelelo engaka kubuYuda? Ngaba ithetha okuthile kwabo bangengomaYuda?

Ebudeni beminyaka eli-150 emva kokutshatyalaliswa kwetempile yaseYerusalem ngowama-70 C.E., ukutyhubela lonke elakwaSirayeli izikolo zoorabhi ngokungxamisekileyo zazifuna into ezazinokusekela kuyo uqheliselo lwamaYuda. Zaxoxa zaza zamisela izithethe eziliqela zomthetho wazo womlomo. Zisakhela kwesi siseko, zabeka imiqathango ethile emitsha kwaneemfuno zobuYuda, zabeka imigaqo yobomi bemihla ngemihla yobungcwele ekubeni kwakungekho tempile. Le ngcinga intsha yokomoya yandlalwa kwiMishnah, eyaqulunqwa nguJudah ha-Nasi ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane yesithathu yeXesha lethu Eliqhelekileyo.a

IMishnah yayingaxhomekekanga ntweni, ingafuni kuxhaswa ngeembekiselo zeBhayibhile. Indlela yayo yokuxubusha izinto kwanesimbo sokubhala sesiHebhere zazikhethekile, zahlukile kumbhalo weBhayibhile. Izigqibo zoorabhi ezicatshulwa kwiMishnah zaziza kuchaphazela ubomi bamaYuda bemihla ngemihla kuyo yonke indawo. Eneneni, uJacob Neusner uthi: “IMishnah yanika amaSirayeli umgaqo-siseko. . . . Yayifuna ukwamkelwa kuze kuthotyelwe imithetho yayo.”

Kodwa kuthekani ukuba abanye babebuza enoba igunya lezilumko ezicatshulwe kwiMishnah ngokwenene lalilingana neleZibhalo ezityhiliweyo? Oorabhi babefanele babonise ukuba iimfundiso zamaTanna (abafundisi bomthetho womlomo) ezifumaneka kwiMishnah ziyavisisana ngokugqibeleleyo neZibhalo zesiHebhere. Kwakufuneka ingcaciso engakumbi. Babevakalelwa kukuba kwakukho imfuneko yokucacisa nokuthethelela iMishnah baze banikele ubungqina bokuba yayivela kuMthetho owanikwa uMoses eSinayi. Oorabhi baziva benyanzelekile ukuba banikele ubungqina bokuba umthetho obhaliweyo nowomlomo unentsingiselo nenjongo enye. Ngoko, kunokuba ibe lilizwi eligqibelayo lobuYuda, iMishnah iye yaba sisiseko esitsha sengxoxo yonqulo.

Ukunqulunqwa KweTalmud

Oorabhi abajamelana nolu celomngeni babesaziwa njengama-Amora—“iitoliki,” okanye “abacacisi,” beMishnah. Sikolo ngasinye sasinorabhi obalulekileyo. Iqaqobana labaphengululi nabafundi babeba neengxubusho zonyaka wonke. Kodwa ezona ngqungquthela zibalulekileyo zazibakho kabini ngonyaka, ebudeni benyanga ka-Adar noElul, xa umsebenzi wokulima wawungemninzi kangako yaye amakhulu okanye amawaka abangakumbi ekwazi ukuya.

UAdin Steinsaltz ucacisa esithi: “Umphathi wesikolo wayesongamela, ehleli kwisihlalo okanye kukhuko olukhethekileyo. Kuludwe olungaphambili phambi kwakhe kwakuhlala abaphengululi ababalulekileyo, kuquka abalingane bakhe okanye abafundi ababalaseleyo, yaye emva kwabo kwakubakho abanye abaphengululi. . . . Kwakuhlalwa ngokwezikhundla [ngokokubaluleka kwakhe ngamnye].” Kwakucengcelezwa inxalenye yeMishnah. Le yayithelekiswa nengxelo efanayo okanye eyongeziweyo ehlanganiswe ngamaTanna kodwa engaqukwanga kwiMishnah. Ngoko kwakuqalisa uhlalutyo. Kwakubuzwa imibuzo, kuze kuhlalutywe iindawo eziphikisanayo ukuze kufunyanwe indlela yokuvisisaniswa kweemfundiso. Kwakukhangelwa iindinyana ezixhasayo ezivela kwiZibhalo zesiHebhere ukuze zisekele iimfundiso zoorabhi.

Nangona zaziqhutywa ngocoselelo olukhulu, ezi ngxubusho zaziba shushu, maxa wambi zibe nesiphithiphithi. Esinye isilumko esikhankanywe kwiTalmud sathetha “ngengxabano eshushu” phakathi koorabhi ebudeni bengxoxo. (Hullin 137b, iTalmud yaseBhabhiloni) USteinsaltz uthi ngaloo ngqungquthela: “Umphathi wesikolo, okanye isilumko esasifundisa, sasinikela ingcaciso yaso ngeengxaki. Abaphengululi kubaphulaphuli ngokuqhelekileyo babehlaba imibuzo ngokusekelwe kweminye imithombo, iimbono zabanye abahlalutyi, okanye izigqibo zabo ezisengqiqweni. Maxa wambi iimpikiswano zaziba mfutshane zize nempendulo ecacileyo neqinisekileyo kumbuzo othile. Kwezinye iimeko abaphengululi babeye banikele izicombululo ezahlukileyo kuze kuqalise impikiswano enkulu.” Wonke ubani kubaphulaphuli wayevumelekile ukuba nenxaxheba. Imibandela ecaciswe kwezo ngqungquthela yayisisiwa kwezinye izikolo ukuze ihlolwe ngabanye abaphengululi.

Sekunjalo, ezi ngqungquthela zazingezongxoxo nje ezisemthethweni nezingapheliyo. Imibandela esemthethweni ephathelele imithetho nemimiselo yobomi bonqulo lwamaYuda ibizwa ngokuba yiHalakah. Eli binzana lisuka kwigama lesiHebhere elithi “ukuhamba” yaye lithetha ‘indlela yobomi ubani amele ayilandele.’ Yonke eminye imibandela—amabali ngoorabhi kwanabantu ekuthethwa ngabo eBhayibhileni, amazwi obulumko, iingcamango zenkolo kwanentanda-bulumko—ibizwa ngokuthi yiHaggadah, igama elisuka kwelesiHebhere elithetha “ukuxela.” IHalakah neHaggadah zazixutywa ebudeni bengxoxo yoorabhi.

Kwincwadi yakhe ethi The World of the Talmud, uMorris Adler uthi: “Umfundisi olumkileyo wayeyiphazamisa ingxoxo esemthethweni ende nenzima aze athethe ngombandela olula nowakhayo. . . . Ngaloo ndlela sifumana ingxubevange yembali neentsomi, inzululwazi yelo xesha nobuvuvu, ubucukubhede beBhayibhile namabali obomi babantu, iintshumayelo nezakwalizwi, nto leyo umntu nje ongenalwazi ngezi nkqubo zokufundisa anokuyibona ingumdudo nje woononkala.” Kubaphengululi ababekwezi zikolo, yonke loo ngxubevange yemibandela yayinenjongo ethile yaye ngamnye wawunokuthanani nento exutyushwayo. IHalakah neHaggadah zazifak’ isandla koko kwakuqulunqwa kwizikolo zoorabhi.

Ukuqulunqwa KweeTalmud Ezimbini

Ekugqibeleni, iziko eliyintloko loorabhi ePalestina lafudukela eTibheriya. Ezinye izikolo ezibalulekileyo zaziseSepphoris, eKesareya, naseLida. Kodwa imeko yezoqoqosho eyayiwohloka, ukungazinzi kwezobupolitika okwakuqhubeka, yaye okokugqibela ingcinezelo nentshutshiso evela kubawexuki bamaKristu zakhokelela kwimfuduko enkulu kusiyiwa kwenye indawo eyayinamaYuda amaninzi eMpuma—iBhabhiloni.

Kangangeenkulungwane, abafundi babesuka eBhabhiloni baye ePalestina ukuze bafunde kwiingcungela zoorabhi kwezo zikolo. Omnye waba bafundi banjalo yayinguAbba ben Ibo, owayekwabizwa ngokuthi nguAbba Arika—uAbba omde—kodwa kamva waziwa njengoRab. Wabuyela eBhabhiloni malunga nowama-219 C.E. emva kokufundiswa nguJudah ha-Nasi, yaye oku kwabangela utshintsho kwimeko yokomoya yamaYuda aseBhabhiloni. URab waseka isikolo eSura, indawo eyayinamaYuda amaninzi kodwa enabaphengululi abambalwa. Udumo lwakhe oluhle lwatsala abafundi abathe rhoqo abali-1200 kwisikolo sakhe, kunye nabangamawaka abangakumbi ababebakho ebudeni beenyanga zamaYuda uAdar noElul. Obalaseleyo owayephila ngexesha likaRab, uSamuel, waseka isikolo eNehardea. Ezinye izikolo ezibalulekileyo zavulwa ePumbeditha naseMehoza.

Ngoku kwakungeyomfuneko ukuya ePalestina, kuba ubani wayenokufundiswa ngabaphengululi abakhulu eBhabhiloni. Ukuqulunqwa kweMishnah njengombhalo owahlukileyo kwavula indlela eya enkululekweni epheleleyo kwizikolo zaseBhabhiloni. Nangona ngoku kwavela iindlela neenkqubo ezahlukileyo zokufunda ePalestina naseBhabhiloni, unxibelelwano oluthe rhoqo nokubonisana kwabefundisi kwazigcina izikolo zimanyene.

Ngasekupheleni kwenkulungwane yesine nasekuqaleni kweyesihlanu kwiXesha lethu Eliqhelekileyo, iimeko zaba maxongo ngakumbi kumaYuda asePalestina. Imiqathango nentshutshiso eyayivela kubawexuki beNgqobhoko yakhokelela ekubhangisweni kweSanhedrin nesikhundla sikaNasi (usolusapho) malunga nowe-425 C.E. Ngoko ama-Amora asePalestina aqalisa ukuhlanganisa ushwankathelo lweengxoxo zezikolo lube yincwadi enye ukuze aqiniseke ukuba zigciniwe. Le ncwadi, eyahlanganiswa ngokungxama ekupheleni kwenkulungwane yesine yeXesha lethu Eliqhelekileyo, yabizwa ngokuthi yiTalmud yasePalestina.b

Ngoxa izikolo zasePalestina zaziphela, ama-Amora aseBhabhiloni afikelela kwincopho yobuchule bawo. UAbaye noRaba balikhulisa inqanaba lengxoxo yaba yingxoxo entsokothileyo nekunzima ukuyiqonda kamva eye yaba sisiseko sokuhlalutywa kweTalmud. Emva koko, uAshi, umphathi wesikolo saseSura (371-427 C.E.), waqalisa ukudibanisa nokushicilela ingxelo yeengxoxo. Ngokutsho kukaSteinsaltz, wakwenza oko “esoyika ukuba, njengokuba wawungalungelelananga, umbandela omninzi owawuthethwe ngomlomo wawusengozini yokuya ulityalwa.”

Le ngxelo eninzi kangaka yayingaphezulu kwenokuqokelelwa ngumntu omnye okanye isizukulwana esinye. Ixesha lama-Amora laphela eBhabhiloni kwinkulungwane yesihlanu yeXesha lethu Eliqhelekileyo, kodwa umsebenzi wokushicilelwa kweTalmud yaseBhabhiloni waqhubeka ukusa kwinkulungwane yesithandathu yeXesha lethu Eliqhelekileyo usenziwa liqela elalibizwa ngokuba ngamaSabora, igama lesiAramiki elithetha “abacacisi,” okanye “abaphathi bezimvo.” Aba bahleli bokugqibela bagqiba kwelokuba badibanise iingxelo ezingumxube nezingaphelelanga neengxoxo zoorabhi zeenkulungwane, befaka isimbo sokubhala kwanokwakhiwa kweTalmud yaseBhabhiloni esasiyahlule kweminye imibhalo yamaYuda.

Yafeza Ntoni ITalmud?

Oorabhi ababhala iTalmud beza nobungqina bokuba iMishnah yayisuka kumthombo omnye noweZibhalo zesiHebhere. Kodwa sasiyintoni isizathu sokwenza oku? UJacob Neusner uthi: “Lo mbandela kuthethwe ngawo yayisisiseko seMishnah. Kodwa eyona ngongoma iyintloko ikukuba yayisekelwe kwigunya lezilumko.” Ukuqinisa eli gunya, mgca ngamnye weMishnah, maxa wambi gama ngalinye, lalihlolisiswa, liphononongwe, licaciswe, yaye livisisaniswe namanye. UNeusner uthi ngale ndlela oorabhi baye “bayiguqula eyona njongo yeMishnah.” Nangona yayilwa njengomsebenzi ogqibeleleyo, ngoku iMishnah yahlulahluliwe. Ebudeni bale nkqubo, iye yenziwa ngokutsha, yacaciswa ngokutsha.

Lo msebenzi mtsha—iTalmud—waphumeza injongo yoorabhi. Bamisela imithetho yokuyihlalutya, yaye ngaloo ndlela yafundisa abantu ukucinga njengoorabhi. Oorabhi babekholelwa kukuba indlela yabo yokufundisisa neyokuhlalutya yayibonakalisa ingqiqo kaThixo. Ukufundisisa iTalmud ngokwayo kwaba yeyona nto iphambili, indlela yokunqula—ukusebenzisa ingqondo kucingwa ukuba kuxeliswa uThixo. Kwizizukulwana ezalandelayo, iTalmud yayiya kuhlalutywa ngendlela efanayo. Oku kwaphumela entwenini? Umbhali-mbali uCecil Roth ubhala esithi: “ITalmud . . . yanika [amaYuda] impembelelo ekhethekileyo eyayiwahlula kwabanye abantu, kwanamandla amakhulu okungaguquki kwiingcamango zawo kwanokumanyana. Ulwimi lwayo olwahlukileyo lwaba sisiseko sendlela acinga ngayo yaye kwawenza . . . akrelekrele ngengqondo. . . . ITalmud yanika umYuda otshutshiswayo owayephila kumaXesha Aphakathi elinye ilizwe anokubalekela kulo . . . Yamnika ilizwe lokuzalwa, lizwe elo anokubalekela kulo xa elahlekelwe lelawo ilizwe.”

Ngokufundisa abanye ngeendlela ababecinga ngayo oorabhi, enyanisweni iTalmud iye yanamandla. Kodwa umbuzo kubo bonke—amaYuda nabangengomaYuda—ngulo, Ngaba iTalmud ngokwenene ibonakalisa ingqiqo kaThixo?—1 Korinte 2:11-16.

[Ibhokisi ekwiphepha 31]

IiTalmud Ezimbini—Zifana Njani?

Igama lesiHebhere elithi “Talmud” lithetha “ukufundisisa” okanye “ukufunda.” Ama-Amora asePalestina nawaseBhabhiloni aphum’ iphulo ukuze ahlolisise, okanye ahlalutye, iMishnah. Zombini ezi Talmud (eyasePalestina neyaseBhabhiloni) ziyakwenza oku, kodwa zifana njani? UJacob Neusner ubhala esithi: “ITalmud yokuqala ihlalutya ubungqina, eyesibini iphengulula iziseko; eyokuqala iyingxelo epheleleyo exhasa iimfundiso zayo, eyesibini yongezelelwe yaye idlulela ngaphaya kweemfundiso zayo.”

Ukuhlalutywa okucokisekileyo kweTalmud yaseBhabhiloni akuzange kuyenze ibe nkulu nje kuphela kodwa yaba nzulu yaza yanaba kwindlela yayo yeengcinga neyokuhlalutya. Xa kukhankanywa igama elithi “Talmud,” ngokuqhelekileyo kuthethwa ngeTalmud yaseBhabhiloni. Le yiTalmud eye yafundisiswa kwaza kwagqatyazwa ngayo kakhulu kwiinkulungwane ezininzi. Ngokoluvo lukaNeusner, iTalmud yasePalestina “ngumsebenzi wobuchule,” yaye iTalmud yaseBhabhiloni “ngumsebenzi weenkcuba-buchopho.”

[Imibhalo esemazantsi]