Ukuhlola Umkhathi—Umuntu Usehambe Ibanga Elingakanani?

NGOAPRIL 12, 1961, omunye ofana noColumbus wafakwa emibhalweni yomlando. UYuri Alekseyevich Gagarin, umgibeli womkhumbi-mkhathi waseRussia, wathatha uhambo lokuqala eya emkhathini ngomkhumbi-mkhathi iVostok 1. Uhambo lwakhe lwathatha imizuzu engu-108 futhi kwamthatha amakhilomitha angu-40 900 ukuzungeza umhlaba kanye. Wawina umzuliswano wokuqala emncintiswaneni omkhulu wasemkhathi phakathi kwalokho okwakuyiSoviet Union neUnited States.

IU.S.News & World Report yaphawula: “Iqiniso liwukuthi . . . iMelika yaqhutshezelwa emkhathini isisusa sokunqoba amaRashiya.” Umongameli uJohn F. Kennedy wazimisela ukuzama ukuvala igebe phakathi kweSoviet neMelika kulokho okufezwayo emkhathini. UJohn Logsdon, umqondisi weCenter for International Science and Technology Policy, wabhala kwethi Blueprint for Space: “USorenson [umeluleki okhethekile kaKennedy] uthi isimo sengqondo sikaKennedy sathonywa iqiniso [lokuthi] ‘abaseSoviet babezuze udumo olukhulu emhlabeni wonke ngendiza iGagarin kuyilapho thina sasilahlekelwe udumo kuyiBay of Pigs.a Yagcizelela iqiniso lokuthi udumo lwaluyisisusa sangempela, hhayi nje ubuhlobo bomphathi, ezindabeni zezwe.’”

Umongameli uKennedy weyezimisele ukuthi nakanjani iUnited States kwakudingeka yenze okuthile okuwumbukwane ukuze yedlule abaseSoviet. Wabuza: “Ingabe asinalo ithuba lokwedlula abaseSoviet ngokwenza indlu yokuhlola emkhathini, noma ngohambo lokuzungeza inyanga, noma ngerokhethi elima enyangeni, noma ngerokhethi eliya enyangeni futhi libuye lihamba ngomuntu? Ingabe sikhona esinye isimiso sasemkhathini esithembisa imiphumela ephawulekayo esingawina kuso?” Ekugcineni ososayensi baseU.S. babenomgqugquzeli wezombangazwe owayesekela izifiso zabo zokuvelela. Kodwa kwakuyodingeka balinde ngaphambi kokuba baphumelele.

AbaseRashiya baqhubeka nochungechunge lwabo lokuphumelela ngo-1963 lapho uValentina Vladimirovna Tereshkova eba ngowesifazane wokuqala ukuzungeza umhlaba, hhayi kanye, kodwa izikhathi ezingu-48! INASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) yabhekana nenselele yokuzifanelanisa emncintiswaneni wodumo wezizwe zonke wasemkhathini. Ngakho, yini abayifeza ekugcineni?

UApollo Nenyanga

Ososayensi beNASA babehlola ukuba nokwenzeka kokuma enyangeni kusukela ngo-1959. Bacela imvume yokwakha umkhumbi-mkhathi owawuyobizwa ngokuthi uApollo. Nokho, “uMongameli uEisenhower wenqaba ukugunyaza lesicelo.” Kungani ayenalombono ophambene? Izindleko, ezisukela emaRandini ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezingu-94 kuya emaRandini ayizigidi eziyizinkulungwane ezingu-127, “zazingeke zinikeze ulwazi olwanele lwezesayensi olungenza lomsebenzi ufaneleke. . . . UEisenhower watshela iNASA ukuthi wayengeke agunyaze noma imuphi umsebenzi owawuhloselwe ukuma enyangeni.” (Blueprint for Space) Okuwukuphela kwethemba lalabososayensi lalikumongameli omusha, uJohn F. Kennedy.

Wabekela ososayensi baseU.S. umgomo wokubeka indoda enyangeni ngaphambi kokuba ishumi leminyaka liphele—futhi ngaphambi kwabaseRashiya! UWendell Marley, owayengunjiniyela kagesi owayesebenza ngesimiso sokuqondisa uApollo, watshela iPhaphama!: “Ngokuqinisekile kwakunomqondo othile wokulwa neU.S.S.R., futhi lokhu kwakuyisisusa phakathi konjiniyela abaningi engangisebenza nabo. Sasiziqhenya ngokufeza ingxenye yethu ekubekeni umuntu enyangeni ngaphambi kokuba iRashiya yenze kanjalo. Abaningi bethu basebenza ngisho nesikhathi esengeziwe ngaphandle kokukhokhelwa ukuze bahambisane nesimiso.”

Umphumela wawo wonke lowomzamo manje usuwumlando—uNeil Armstrong noEdwin “Buzz” Aldrin bashiya izinyathelo zokuqala zabantu emhlabathini wasenyangeni ngoJuly 1969. Lokhu okwafinyelelwa okuphawulekayo akuzange kungabi nenkokhelo. NgoJanuary 27, 1967, abagibeli bemikhumbi-mkhathi abathathu bafa emlilweni owawuphakathi komkhumbi-mkhathi ngesikhathi sokuhlola kwangaphambi kokundiza. Ezinyangeni ezingaphansi kwezintathu kamuva, umgibeli wemikhumbi-mkhathi uVladimir Komarov wafa lapho ezama ukubuyela emhlabeni ngemva kokuzungeza umhlaba izikhathi ezingu-18. Nokho, emakhulwini eminyaka, yilokho ngokuvamile okuye kwakhokhwa amadoda nabesifazane ngenxa yokuhlola kwabo. Baye bafela ekunxaneleni kwabo ulwazi nodumo.

Manje, ngaphandle kokuya enyangeni, iyiphi enye intuthuko eye yenziwa emkhathini?

Ukuhlola Amaplanethi

INASA iye yathumela iziphuphutheki eziningi emkhathini, futhi ziye zaveza imiphumela emihle ngokukhethekile ekwandeni kolwazi lomkhathi. Lena enye yezinzuzo ososayensi abakhomba kuyo ukuze bathethelele ukwanda okukhulu kwemikhumbi-mkhathi enabagibeli nemikhumbi-mkhathi engenabagibeli. NgoMarch 1992 kwagujwa umkhosi wama-20 wenye yezindaba zempumelelo enkulu yokuhlola umkhathi—ukucitshwa komkhumbi-mkhathi wokuqala ukuya ngalé kwesimiso sonozungezilanga. IPioneer 10, eyacitshwa ngo-1972, yakwazi ukulungisa ukuhluleka kwaleyo eyayize ngaphambi kwayo, eyayihlehlela emuva ku-1958. Ukuphila kwenkuthalo kwalomkhumbi-mkhathi cishe kwakulindeleke ukuba kube iminyaka emithathu. Esikhundleni salokho, ngenxa yamandla awo enuzi, namanje usathumela ukwaziswa emhlabeni. UNicholas Booth, ebhala kuyiNew Scientist, uthi “izikhulu zeNASA zilindele ukuba zikwazi ukuxhumana nalomkhumbi-mkhathi kuze kube sekupheleni kwalelikhulu leminyaka. Lokhu kungachazwa njengomsebenzi owaphumelela kunayo yonke kwezamaplanethi.” Kungani iPioneer 10 iye yaba ekhetheke kangaka?

Yahlelelwa ukuba iye kumakhelwane omkhulu kakhulu weplanethi yethu, iJupiter, ngaphambi kokuya ngalé kwesimiso sonozungezilanga. Lokho kwakuhilela uhambo lwamakhilomitha ayizigidi ezingu-779 olwathatha cishe iminyaka emibili. Yafika kuyiJupiter ngoDecember 1973. Endleleni yadlula iMars futhi yadlula emaplanethini amancane ngalé kweMars. Yaqopha ukushayisa okungu-55 kwezilongotshane zothuli. Nokho, lomkhumbi-mkhathi wasinda ngaphandle kokulimala. Amanye amathuluzi ayebala imisebe namandla adonsayo azungeze iJupiter.

Khona-ke kwacitshwa iPioneer 11, futhi ngemva kokudlula iJupiter yaya kuyiSaturn. Yakhela phezu kwesisekelo salokhu okwafezwa iPioneer, iNASA yalandela ngemikhumbi-mkhathi iVoyager 1 no-2. Lena, ngokwamazwi kaNicholas Booth, iye yathumela “ukwaziswa okuningi ngesimiso seJovian [iJupiter] okwedlula imiphumela yemisebenzi yePioneer.” Lemikhumbi-mkhathi ikuthumela kanjani ukwaziswa kwayo emhlabeni?

Kunendlela yokuxhumana ebizwa ngokuthi iDeep Space Network, equkethe izitsha zemisebe, ezinobubanzi bamamitha angu-64, ezishintshisanayo ekuthungatheni izimpawu njengoba umhlaba uzungeza. Lezitsha ziseSpain, eAustralia, naseUnited States. Ziye zaba isihluthulelo sokwamukela ngokunembile izimpawu zemisebe yemikhumbi-mkhathi.

Ingabe Kukhona Ukuphila KuyiMars?

Ukuhlolwa komkhathi ngokusobala kuyoqhubeka kushukunyiswa omunye umbuzo odidayo osekungamashumi amaningi eminyaka ushukumisa ilukuluku lomuntu: Ingabe ukuphila okuhlakaniphile kukhona kwenye indawo laphaya ngaphandle endaweni yonke enkulu? Sekuyisikhathi eside izazi zezinkanyezi nabalobi becabangela nje uma kuziwa ekutheni kukhona ukuphila eplanethini elibomvu iMars. Yini eye yaboniswa ukundiza kwamuva ngemikhumbi-mkhathi ngokuqondene nalokho?

Uchungechunge lwemikhumbi-mkhathi yeMariner ngawo-1960 nawo-1970 lwabuyisa imifanekiso yeMars. Khona-ke, ngo-1976, abagibeli beViking 1 no-2 bathinta umhlabathi weMars, futhi ngokumangalisayo, bathumela ukwaziswa ngedwala nenhlabathi. Kwatholakala kanjani? Ngokusetshenziswa kwendlu yokuhlola yamakhemikhali nezinto eziphilayo ekumkhumbi-mkhathi wokwehla. Inhlabathi yacoshwa ngesandla serobhothi, yangeniswa kumkhumbi-mkhathi, futhi yahlaziywa endlini yokuhlola esebenza ngamarobhothi. Ingabe kwakukhona ukuphila noma lalikhona ithemba lakho lapho? Yini eyembulwa izithombe nokuhlaziya?

Umlobi wesayensi yasemkhathini uBruce Murray uyachaza: “Awekho amahlathi, abukho utshani, azikho izinyathelo noma okunye okubonisa ukuphila okwathethelela ukuba ugwadule kwalendawo emangalisayo. . . . Naphezu kokuhlola ngokunakekela okukhulu ngamasampula enhlabathi . . . , akukho neyodwa inhlayiya ephilayo eyatholakala . . . inhlabathi yeMars ayinakho kakhulu ukuphila kunanoma iyiphi indawo eMhlabeni. . . . IMars ngokunokwenzeka iye yangaba nokuphila okungenani ezinkulungwaneni zezigidi zeminyaka edlule.”

UMurray wafinyelela esiphethweni ngabo bonke ubufakazi obuvela ekuhloleni amaplanethi: “Ngempela yithi nje kuphela kuleSimiso Sonozungezilanga. UMhlaba, okuyiwo kuphela obukeka njengamanzi, ungumthombo wokuphila. Asinazo izihlobo ezikude eziphila kuyiMars ngisho nanomaphi kuleSimiso Sonozungezilanga.”

IVenus Ibukeka Kanjani?

IVenus, nakuba icishe ilingane noMhlaba, iyiplanethi engenakuhlalwa abantu. Isazi sezinkanyezi uCarl Sagan siyibiza ngokuthi “indawo engeyinhle ngokuphelele.” Amafu ayo anesulfuric acid, futhi umoya wayo ngokuyinhloko uyisikhutha. Amandla omoya phansi angamaphesenti angu-90 ngaphezu kwawoMhlaba; okulingana nesisindo samanzi angaphezu kwekhilomitha ukujula.

Kungaziphi ezinye izindlela iVenus ehluke ngazo eMhlabeni? UCarl Sagan, encwadini yakhe iCosmos, uthi iVenus iphendukela “emuva, ohlangothini oluhlukile kunawo wonke amanye amaplanethi kulesimiso sonozungezilanga. Ngenxa yalokho, iLanga liphuma entshonalanga futhi lishone empumalanga, kuthatha izinsuku ezingu-118 zoMhlaba ukusuka ekuphumeni kwelanga kuya ekuphumeni kwelanga.” Amazinga okushisa ebusweni bayo acishe abe ngu-480 degrees Celsius, noma, njengoba uSagan esho, “ashisa ukwedlula uhhavini wasendlini oshisa kakhulu.” Kusukela ngo-1962, iVenus iye yahlolwa imikhumbi-mkhathi ehlukahlukene yeMariner nePioneer-Venus kanye nangemikhumbi-mkhathi eminingana yeVenera yaseSoviet.

Nokho, ekubhaleni amabalazwe, imiphumela engcono kakhulu iye yavela kumkhumbi-mkhathi iMagellan, umshini wokubhala ibalazwe wemisebe weVenus ophethwe iJet Propulsion Laboratory yeNASA. Yacitshwa kumkhumbi-mkhathi iAtlantis ngoMay 4, 1989. Lomkhumbi-mkhathi ophawulekayo, iMagellan, wathatha izinyanga ezingu-15 ukuba ufike kuyiVenus, lapho manje uzungeza khona leloplanethi njalo emizuzwini engu-15 njengoba uthatha imifanekiso yalo yemisebe futhi uyithumela emuva emhlabeni. UStuart J. Goldman, ebhala kwethi Sky & Telescope, uthi: “Ukubiza umkhiqizo womsebenzi womkhumbi-mkhathi iMagellan ngokuthi ungophawulekayo akuchazi kahle neze. . . . Lomhloli oyirobhothi wenza ibalazwe elingamaphesenti angu-84 alo lonke iplanethi lalingana nenkundla yokudlala ibhola phakathi nezinyanga zawo ezingu-8 uzungeza. . . . Inani lokwaziswa okuye kwathunyelwa iMagellan kososayensi abanelukuluku lokwazi liye laba elingakaze libonwe. Ekuqaleni kuka-1992 lomkhumbi-mkhathi wawusuthumele izingxenyana zokwaziswa eziyizigidi zezigidi ezingu-2,8. Lokhu kukuphinda kathathu ukwaziswa kwemifanekiso okuvela kuyo yonke imikhumbi-mkhathi ezungeza amaplanethi ihlangene.”

Nasi isimo lapho ukuhlanganiswa komkhumbi-mkhathi onabantu nerobhothi kuye kwaveza khona imiphumela emangalisayo. Yaba yini inzuzo? Ulwazi olwengeziwe ngesimiso sethu sonozungezilanga. Futhi konke lokhu kwafezwa ngezindleko eziphansi ngokuqhathaniswa, njengoba iMagellan ngokwezinga elithile yayingumsebenzi wezingxenye eziyizipele, isebenzisa izinsalela ezivela kumikhumbi-mkhathi iVoyager, iGalileo, neMariner.

INASA Neziphuphutheki Ezihlolayo

Ukufuna ulwazi lwezesayensi bekungesona nje kuphela isisusa sokuhlola umkhathi. Amanye amandla aqhubezelayo kuye kwaba isifiso sokwedlula ngokwezempi noma iziphi izizwe ezingaba izitha. Eminyakeni eminingi, izimiso zasemkhathini ziye zasetshenziswa kokubili iUnited States nalokho okwakuyiSoviet Union njengendlela yokwandisa ikhono lawo lokuhlola. UBruce Murray uthi encwadini yakhe iJourney Into Space: “Ukuzungeza uMhlaba kwasekuqaleni kwakuyindawo yokuthola ukwaziswa neminye imisebenzi yezempi, indawo yengxabano yezempi ebhubhisa ngokungathi sína phakathi kweUnited States neSoviet Union.”

UJoseph J. Trento encwadini yakhe iPrescription for Disaster ubika ukuthi “ngo-1971 iCIA neAir Force zaqala ukuklama uchungechunge lweziphuphutheki eziyizinhloli iKeyhole noma iKH. NgoDecember 19, 1976, kwacitshwa iKeyhole yokuqala.” Leziphuphutheki ezithwebula izithombe zazingahlala zizungeza iminyaka emibili futhi zithumele ukwaziswa kwazo emuva emhlabeni ngezimpawu eziyizinombolo. Zaziphumelela kangakanani? UTrento uyaqhubeka: “Zazicace kakhulu kangangokuthi izinombolo zezimoto ezimile zazingafundeka ngokucacile. Ngaphezu kwalokho, leziphuphutheki zazisetshenziselwa ukuthwebula izithombe zemikhumbi-mkhathi yaseSoviet eyayizungeza nezindiza zempi ezazindiza namabhomu.”

Imikhumbi-mkhathi Eyinkimbinkimbi

Eminyakeni yamuva izwe liye lavuka amadlingozi ukubona izizungezi eziyimikhumbi-mkhathi enabantu zicitshwa emkhathini. Ingabe wake wacabanga ngobunkimbinkimbi bakho konke lokhu? Ngokuthi zingaki izinto ezingabheda futhi ziholele enhlekeleleni? Ngokwesibonelo, onjiniyela baye bashikiliswa izinkinga ezinjengokuthi bangazigcina kanjani izinjini zemikhumbi-mkhathi zipholile lapho isuka ukuze ivikeleke ekuncibilikisweni ukushisa kwazo. “Phakathi neminyaka embalwa yokuqala yokuhlola, kwancibilika futhi kwaqhuma izinjini eziningi,” kubhala uTrento. Khona-ke, kunesidingo sokuvuthisa kanye kanye amarokhethi amabili atshuzayo asebenzisa isivuthela-mlilo esingakancibilikiswa ukuze lonke ithuluzi lingaphenduki liphahlazeke. Lezici ngokuqinisekile zaba nengxenye ekwandiseni izindleko.

Ukuciba kokuqala okuphumelelayo kwenzeka ngoApril 12, 1981. Njengoba amadoda amabili ayengabashayeli uJohn Young noRobert Crippen ahlala ezibophile ezihlalweni zawo, ngayinye yezinjini zomkhumbi-mkhathi yayikhipha okuthile okungamakhilogremu angu-170 000. Ngokusho kukaTrento, abanye ososayensi babebuza: “Ingabe lokhu kwakuyophumelela noma ingabe leliphupho laliyophenduka liwele emachibini aseFlorida? Ukuba izivuthela-mlilo ezingakancibilikiswa azizange zithungeleke phakathi nomzuzwana wesinye nesinye kwakuyoba nomlilo endaweni okusukelwa kuyo i-39A. . . . Lapho ukubala kufinyelela eqandeni lezivuthela-mlilo ezingakancibilikiswa zavutha. Umusi omhlophe wagcwala emkhathizwe futhi amabhawodi okuwubamba ukuba ungawi akhululeka. Abashayeli babekuzwa ukuduma. Bakuzwa ukujika kwesithuthi kanye namandla amakhulu.” Baphumelela. “Ngokokuqala ngqá emlandweni weU.S., amaMelika aya emkhathini ngesimiso serokhethi esasingakahlolwa futhi andiza ngaso. . . . Isithuthi esiyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu esake sakhiwa sasebenza.” Kwazalwa uhlobo olusha loColumbus. Kodwa akwenzekanga ngaphandle kwezingozi—futhi hhayi ngaphandle kwenkokhelo. Inhlekelele yeChallenger ka-1986 eyaphumela ekufeni kwabagibeli bemikhumbi-mkhathi abayisikhombisa iwubufakazi baleloqiniso.

Kulokho kundiza kokuqala, izithombe zombala zabonisa ukuthi amatile angenakusha, abalulekile ekubuyeleni emhlabeni ngamazinga okushisa angu-1 100 degrees Celsius, ayengasatholakali esiswini salesizungezi. Ososayensi kwadingeka babhekisise ukuze bathole ukuthi umonakalo ungakanani. Awekho amakhamera asemhlabeni ayenamandla ngokwanele ukuba anganikeza umfanekiso ocacile wesisu esilimele seColumbia. Ngakho, laliyini ikhambi? Isiphuphutheki esiyinhloli iKH-11 sasilapho sizungeza ngenhla kwalomkhumbi-mkhathi. Kwanqunywa ukuba kuphendulwe isizungezi sibheke phansi siqondane nomhlaba ukuze isisu saso sibheke isiphuphutheki. Imiphumela eyathunyelwa emhlabeni yaqinisekisa abantu beNASA ukuthi kwakungaphumanga izingxenye ezinkulu zamatile. Lomsebenzi wawungekho engozini.

Isimiso Semikhumbi-mkhathi—Esempi Noma Esokuthula?

Umlando weNASA ungenye yezingxabano zasikhathi sonke phakathi kwalabo ababheka lenhlangano njengendlela yokuhlola ngokuthula umkhathi nalabo abawubheka ngokuyinhloko njengethuba lokwedlula abaseSoviet eMpini Yomshoshaphansi. Ngo-1982 lengxabano yezithakazelo yachazwa ngamafuphi uHarold C. Hollenbeck, ilungu leHouse of Representatives, lapho ethi kuyiHouse Science and Technology Committee: “Inhlekelele iwukuthi abantu baseMelika abazi ngokwenziwa kwalenhlangano yasemkhathini engeyona eyempi ukuba ibe eyombangazwe nezempi. . . . Kwakuyiqembu labangekho empini elasibeka enyangeni . . . Mina, ngokwami, angisifuni isimiso sasemkhathini esibizayo esiyingxenye yeMpi Yasemkhathini. . . . Ngingethemba nje kuphela ukuthi isizukulwane esilandelayo samaMelika ngeke sibakhumbule labo bethu esilapha namuhla njengabaholi abahlala bangasho lutho lapho iMelika iguqula umzamo omuhle uba isimiso sezempi yasemkhathini.”

Waqhubeka ngenkulumo efingqa umonakalo umuntu ayewenza ekusaseni lakhe: “Saya emkhathini njengomkhakha omusha wokuhlola futhi manje sidonsela inzondo nobumunyu bomhlaba emazulwini njengokungathi kuyilungelo lomuntu ukulwa impi kuyo yonke indawo.” Ibhizinisi elikhulu nezithakazelo zezombangazwe nezempi kwakuzama ukubusa iNASA. Izinkulungwane zezigidi zamaRandi nezinkulungwane zemisebenzi (nokusekela) kwakuboshelwe ekusaseni layo.

Manje umbuzo onengqondo uwukuthi, Ziye zaba yini ezinye zezinzuzo zesintu esihlola umkhathi, futhi ikusasa liphetheni?

[Umbhalo waphansi]

[Isithombe ekhasini 8, 9]

1. Isithuthi sasenyangeni esivela kuApollo

2. Isithuthi sasenyangeni nomgibeli womkhumbi-mkhathi uEdwin E. Aldrin, Jr., (ngoJuly 20, 1969)

3. IVehicle Assembly Building, ngokunokwenzeka eyisakhiwo esisodwa esikhulu kunazo zonke emhlabeni

4. Umkhumbi-mkhathi esithuthini siya endaweni esisukela kuyo

5. Isiphuphutheki sesizocitshwa

6. Umkhumbi-mkhathi i“Challenger” kanye nengalo yerobhothi ebonakalayo

7. Owesifazane wokuqala emkhathini, uValentina Tereshkova

8. Indoda yokuqala emkhathini, uYuri A. Gagarin

9. Izingalo zerobhothi zithatha amasampula kuyiMars

[Umthombo]

Photos 1-6 NASA photo; 7, 8 Tass/Sovfoto; 9 Photo NASA/JPL