Ukwambula Izimfihlakalo Zasekujuleni Kolwandle
UKUZE siqonde ukuthi zisho ukuthini izinto ezabonwa abacwaningi ababegibele i-Alvin, kufanele sithi ukuqonda indlela umhlaba owenziwe ngayo. Inhlabathi esihamba phezu kwayo kuthiwa yakhiwa ungqimba oluqinile (okuthiwa i-lithosphere) oluphezu kwedwala elikhulu elincibilikile, elihamba kancane kancane. Lolu ngqimba lungaba amakhilomitha ayikhulu ukujula futhi lwakha u-0,6% kuphela wobukhulu beplanethi. Ingxenye engaphandle yalolu ngqimba ayilingani, iwugqinsi ngaphansi kwamazwekazi kanti ingaba amakhilomitha ayisithupha ngaphansi kokhahlamba lwasolwandle.
Ngaphezu kwalokho, lolu ngqimba olungaphandle alulona nje ungqimba olulodwa, njengegobolondo leqanda eliphelele. Kunalokho, kubonakala sengathi luhlukaniswe lwaba yizingqimba eziningana ezinkulu, eziqinile, kanye neziningi ezincane, zonke ezibizwa ngokuthi ama-tectonic plate. Lezi zingqimba zibumba amazwekazi nezigodi zasolwandle. Zinyakaza ngokuvumelana. Lapho zihlukana, ziyancipha futhi zakhe ukhahlamba ngaphansi kolwandle. Emhlabeni wonke lezi zingqimba zihamba cishe amasentimitha amathathu ngonyaka.
Ngokwenkolelo-mbono yokuhamba kwezingqimba zomhlaba, njengoba lezi zingqimba zihlukana ngakulolu khahlamba lwasolwandle, zivumela ukuba kukhuphuke amadwala ashisayo angaphansi kongqimba oluphezulu. La madwala ashisayo aba ungqimba olusha olwandle oluhambisana nokhahlamba, kodwa lokhu akwenzi ukuba izingqimba zihlangane. Kunalokho, ziyaqhubeka zihlukana, okwenza lolu khahlamba lufane nesilonda esikhulu esibhibhayo.
Ngesikhathi ukhahlamba lwasolwandle luba nongqimba olusha, enye ingxenye ingena ngokunyenya ngaphansi kongqimba oluseduze futhi yehlele ngaphansi endaweni eshisayo. Lapho, ihlangana nongqimba lomhlaba olungaphansi. Indawo lapho lolu ngqimba lwehlela khona kuthiwa i-subduction zone. Lezi zindawo zinamawa ajule kunawo wonke emhlabeni. Ngokwesibonelo, iMariana Trench ngasogwini lweGuam ePacific Ocean, ingaphezu kwamakhilomitha angu-11 ukujula. Uma iMount Everest, intaba ephakeme kunazo zonke emhlabeni, ibingafakwa kuleli liwa, isiqongo sayo besiyokwembozwa amanzi ngamakhilomitha amabili!
Umthombo Wobuthi!
Ngenxa yokuthi lunezintaba-mlilo futhi aluzinzile, ukhahlamba lwasolwandle oluzungeza imbulunga yonke luhlale luthaphuka udaka olushisayo futhi lunemigodi ekhipha amanzi ashisayo. Le migodi ikhipha inhlanganisela enobuthi futhi eshisayo yamanzi namaminerali ancibilikile avela ngaphansi komhlaba. Nokho, okumangalisayo ngale ndawo okulukhuni ukuhlala kuyo, enamandla omfutho aphindwe izikhathi ezingamakhulukhulu kunamandla angaphezu kwamanzi, ukuthi ayizixoshi izinto eziphilayo kodwa iyazikhanga—ngobuningi bazo! Amakhulu ezinto eziphilayo ezihlala lapho ezihlanganisa ama-bacterium, izimbaza ezinkulu—ezingaba yifidi lonke ubude—kanye nama-tube worm amangalisayo anezimpaphe ezibomvu tebhu, anamathele phansi futhi angaba amamitha angu-1,8 ukuphakama.
Lapho zikhishwa emanzini, izilwane ezisekujuleni kwamanzi zinuka njengamaqanda abolile! Leli phunga alibangelwa ukubola, kodwa libangelwa yi-hydrogen sulfide—ikhemikhali enephunga elibi futhi enobuthi obuyingozi etholakala ngobuningi emithonjeni yamanzi ashisayo. Amanzi aphuma kule migodi ane-asidi embi nohlobo oluningi lwensimbi, oluhlanganisa ithusi, i-magnesium, insimbi ne-zinc. Kodwa esikhundleni sokuphila engcupheni esimweni esinjalo—esiye safaniswa nendawo yokulahla imfucumfucu enobuthi—ama-tube worm nezinye izilwane ziyachuma! Kanjani? Ukuze siqonde, ake sihlolisise i-tube worm.
Impicabadala Ephilayo
Lapho izazi zezinto eziphilayo zihlola ama-tube worm, zathola ukuthi lezi zilwane ziyimpicabadala ephilayo. Ayengenamlomo noma isimiso sokugaya ukudla. Kwaphakama umbuzo, Akudla futhi akugaye kanjani ukudla? Kwabe sekuvela indaba ethakazelisayo: Lezi zibungu zinegazi elibomvu—hhayi uketshezi olusagazi kodwa igazi langempela, eligcwele i-hemoglobin—elizungeza kuwo wonke umzimba wazo nasezimpapheni.
Izimfihlakalo zajula nakakhulu lapho ososayensi bevula isikhwama esithambile somzimba we-tube worm. Izicubu zayo zazinama-bacterium amaningi angaba yizigidi eziyizinkulungwane eziyishumi ezicutshini ezingangegremu elilodwa! Ngo-1980 umfundi othile waveza inkolelo-mbono yokuthi i-tube worm iphila ngokusizana nesinye isilwane—inqubo yezilwane ezimbili ezisizanayo ukuze zizuze zombili. Ucwaningo lwaqinisekisa umbono wakhe ngokubonisa ukuthi i-tube worm yondla ama-bacterium njengoba iwathwele, kanti ama-bacterium ondla lesi sibungu.
Njengezimbobo zokuphefumula zenhlanzi, izimpaphe ze-tube worm ziqongelela izithako, ezinjengomoya-mpilo ne-carbon, ezidingwa ama-bacterium ukuze akhiqize ukudla. Lezi zimpaphe azihambi ngokuqondile zidlule emanzini ashisayo aphuma phansi—lokho bekungaba ukuzidonsela amanzi ngomsele—kodwa zidlula endaweni eseduze nalapho kuhlangana khona amanzi aqandayo namanzi ashisayo aphuma emgodini. Yiqiniso, le nqubo yokwenza ukudla idinga amandla. Ebusweni bomhlaba—nasengxenyeni ephezulu yolwandle—ukukhanya kwelanga kuthuthukisa inqubo yokukhiqizwa kokudla ngokukhulisa uhlaza. Kodwa ukukhanya kwelanga akufiki nakufika eduze kwendawo esekujuleni ye-tube worm.
Amandla Avela Emathunjini Omhlaba
Ngokuhlakanipha, uMdali uhlele ukuba amathumbu omhlaba anikeze amandla adingekayo ngemithombo yamanzi ashisayo nangesithako esinephunga elibi i-hydrogen sulfide. “Njengokukhanya kwelanga” okukule mithombo, i-hydrogen sulfide inikeza amandla ama-bacterium awadingayo ukuze akwazi ukukhiqiza ukudla. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, ama-bacterium “ayizitshalo” zasemithonjeni yamanzi ashisayo ngoba ayisisekelo somjikelezo wokudla.a
Ukuze lihlanganise wonke amakhemikhali adingwa ama-bacterium, igazi le-tube worm linamangqamuzana e-hemoglobin anobukhulu obuphindwe izikhathi ezingu-30 kunawomuntu. Leli gazi liyisa amakhemikhali kuma-bacterium alambile, wona abese ekhiqiza ukudla okudingwa yi-tube worm.
Ukuphila Emthonjeni Wamanzi Ashisayo—Iqoqo Lezinto Eziphilayo!
Yebo, asikho isilwane esiphila emthonjeni wamanzi ashisayo okufanele sibulawe yindlala, ngoba ama-bacterium anamathela cishe kuyo yonke into—ngezinye izikhathi abe yinqwaba engamasentimitha amaningi! Ngisho nasemanzini ayaluzayo angenhla kwemithombo, ama-bacterium ngezinye izikhathi abuthana ngobuningi, abe isobho eliphilayo. Njengama-tube worm, ezinye izilwane zijabulela ubudlelwane bokusizana nama-bacterium, kuyilapho ezinye zivele ziwadle ngokuqondile. Yebo, izindawo ezisemigodini ekhipha amanzi ashisayo zinezinto eziningi futhi zinamandla kangangokuba zifaniswa namaxhaphozi, amahlathi emvula nezixhobo zama-coral ezisemanzini angajulile.
Eqinisweni, kuye kwatholakala izinto eziphilayo ezintsha ezingaba ngu-300 eduze kwale migodi. Lezi zihlanganisa izimbaza ezinkulu ezimhlophe (umbala awucaci kahle endaweni ehlala isitshekelwe ubumnyama), ama-octopus nezinkalankala ezimhlophe eziyizidlakudla ezithanda izimpaphe ezithambile zama-tube worm. Ukuze zizivikele, lezi zibungu zikwazi ukunyakaza ngokushesha zifihle izimpaphe eshubhini ukuze ziphephe.
Ezinye izilwane ezitholakala kule migodi zihlanganisa izicabucabu zasolwandle, iminenke, izimfanzi, ama-limpet, ama-copepod, izinhlanzi ezinjengombokwane ezintweza ezindaweni ezigcwele ama-bacterium nesibabule, izinhlobo ezincane zama-tube worm nezinye izibungu. Lezi zibungu zihlanganisa i-spaghetti worm ne-Pompeii worm. Igama le-spaghetti worm lifaneleka kahle, ngoba ifana ne-spaghetti esimhlophe esithelwe phezu kwamadwala. Okwenza i-Pompeii worm ihluke yikhono layo lokubekezelela amazinga okushisa afinyelela ku-80 °C.! Yiqiniso, ama-bacterium akule migodi, anamathela kuyi-Pompeii worm, nawo ayakwazi ukubekezelela amazinga okushisa aphakeme.b
Ukukhanya Okuyinqaba!
Ngo-1985, ososayensi bamangala lapho bethola eduze kwale migodi izimfanzi ezinezitho ezimbili ezinjengamehlo ezinamakhemikhali azwelayo ekukhanyeni kodwa angenawo ama-lens. Yiqiniso, umbuzo wokuqala owafika ezingqondweni zabo waba ukuthi, Lezi zilwane zibona kanjani endaweni emnyama ngale ndlela? Ukuze bathole impendulo, abacwaningi basebenzisa ikhamera eyinkimbinkimbi, enjengaleyo esetshenziselwa ukuthwebula izinkanyezi ezilufifi. Baqondisa le khamera emgodini okhipha amanzi ashisayo, bacima zonke izibani zabo, base bethwebula isithombe.
Umphumela wawumangalisa. Usosayensi uCindy Lee Van Dover uthi isithombe saveza “ukukhanya okugqamile, okungavamile” endaweni lapho amanzi ashisayo ayeshiye khona ushimula. Ingabe izimfanzi zisebenzisa lokhu kukhanya okuyinqaba, okungabonakali ngamehlo omuntu? Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi isimo siyini, uVan Dover unezela ngokuthi ukutholakala kweqiniso lokuthi imithombo yamanzi ashisayo inokukhanya “kuvula umkhakha omusha shá wocwaningo.”
Amakhulu Namancane Kunawo Wonke
Muva nje, kuye kwatholakala ukuthi ingxenye yolwandle engaphansi egcwele i-methane iyikhaya lama-bacterium amakhulu kunawo wonke emkhakheni wesayensi. Njengoba atholakala ngo-1997, la ma-bacterium amakhulu, afana nemicu, made ngokuphindwe izikhathi eziyikhulu kuya kwezingu-200 kune-bacterium evamile. Futhi ayizidlakudla, awashiyi ngisho nezinsalela zama-sulfide anobuthi enhlabathini, kanjalo enza indawo iphephe kwezinye izilwane zasolwandle.
Muva nje kuye kwatholakala lokho okungaba yisilwane esiphilayo esincane kunazo zonke emhlabeni ngaphansi kolwandle, nakuba kwakusebangeni elingamakhilomitha amahlanu ngaphansi kolwandle! Umbiko we-New York Times uchaza lesi silwane esatholakala ngasogwini lweNtshonalanga Australia ngokuthi, “siyinqaba kangangokuba sesibangele impikiswano eshubile emhlabeni wonke.” Iphuzu lempikiswano eliyinhloko ukuthi ziyaphila yini lezi zinto—ezibizwa ngokuthi ama-nanobe ngenxa yokuthi ubukhulu bazo bulinganiswa ngama-nanometer, noma izingxenye eziyizigidi eziyinkulungwane zemitha. Zifana nesikhunta, zicishe zibe ngangegciwane ngobukhulu, zine-DNA, futhi kubonakala sengathi zizala ngokushesha, bese ziba ziningi.
Manje kutholakala izinto eziningi eziphilayo kangangokuba ososayensi abaningi bakholelwa ukuthi ingqikithi yesisindo sezinto ezincane eziphilayo ezitholakala ngaphansi komhlaba ingaphezulu kakhulu kwengqikithi yazo zonke izinto eziphila phezu komhlaba! Lezi zinto ezitholakalayo zishintsha imibono yesayensi. Usosayensi othile wathi: “Kule minyaka embalwa edlule ukuba ntamo lukhuni kuyisayensi yezinto ezincane eziphilayo akusasebenzi. Lo mkhakha usushintshile. Usuwumkhakha omusha ngokuphelele wesayensi.”
Ngaphezu kwalokho, lezi zinto ezitholakalayo ezimangalisayo zisifundisa okuthile okungaphezu kwesayensi. IBhayibheli liveza ukubaluleka kwalokho kuqonda: “Izimfanelo [zikaNkulunkulu] ezingabonakali zibonakala ngokucacile kusukela ekudalweni kwezwe kuye phambili, ngoba ziqondakala ngezinto ezenziwe.” (Roma 1:20) Ngokwesibonelo, uNkulunkulu uyakukhathalela ngempela ukuhlanzeka. Lokhu kubonakala kuma-bacterium nezinye izilwane zasolwandle ezidla ubuthi obuningi obunamandla obuvela ngaphansi komhlaba nasezintweni ezibolayo ezingena olwandle. Ngokusobala, uNkulunkulu uyayikhathalela impilo yale planethi neyazo zonke izinto eziphilayo ezikuyo. Njengoba sizobona esihlokweni esilandelayo, le mfanelo yobuntu bukaNkulunkulu iyisiqinisekiso sekusasa eliqhakazile kuzo zonke izinto eziphila emhlabeni.
[Imibhalo yaphansi]
a Inqubo yamakhemikhali esetshenziswa ama-bacterium asemthonjeni wamanzi ashisayo kuthiwa i-chemosynthesis. Leli gama lihlukile kwelithi photosynthesis, inqubo esebenza ngokukhanya yohlaza nezithombo ne-phytoplankton. I-phytoplankton ihlanganisa izitshalo noma izilwane ezinjengezitshalo ezitholakala engxenyeni yolwandle engaphezulu, ehlala inokukhanya kwelanga.
b Ngawo-1960, ososayensi baqala ukucwaninga ngama-bacterium athanda ukushisa atholakala emithonjeni eshisayo yaseYellowstone National Park e-United States. Incwadi ethi The Deep Hot Biosphere ithi ngenxa yalezi “zimiso zemvelo eziyingqayizivele, ososayensi baqala ukuqonda amakhono angaphezu kwavamile ezinto ezivamile eziphila emhlabeni.”
[Ibhokisi/Isithombe ekhasin 7]
Iyini Imithombo Yamanzi Ashisayo?
Endaweni enokhahlamba lwasolwandle, amanzi olwandle angena emifantwini aye ezindaweni ezishisa bhe. La manzi ayashisa, ahlangane namadwala, abese exubana namakhemikhali amaningi. Futhi aba nomfutho, akhuphukele phezulu, abese evula imigodi—imithombo yamanzi ashisayo. Incwadi ethile ithi le mithombo “inamandla nobukhulu obufana nobemithombo esemhlabeni.”
Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinga lokushisa lale mithombo esolwandle lingafinyelela ku-400 °C., okuyizinga elishisa ngaphezu komthofu oncibilikisiwe. Kodwa ngenxa yomfutho wamanzi amaningi olwandle, la manzi ashisayo awaphenduki abe isitimu. Ngokumangalisayo, ibanga elingamamilimitha ambalwa nje ukusuka kula manzi ashisayo, izinga lokubanda lamanzi olwandle azungezile lingaphezudlwana nje kwezinga-qhwa. Amaminerali aphuma emithonjeni ephola ngokushesha ayazika, abe yiziduli noshimula. Oshimula bangaba amamitha angu-9 ukuphakama. Eqinisweni, kwatholakala omunye ushimula ongamamitha angu-45 ukuphakama namamitha ayishumi ubukhulu, futhi wawusakhuphuka!
Imithombo yamanzi ashisayo ingathula noma ikhiphe amanzi noma nini, okwenza ukuphila endaweni eyizungezile kube yingozi. Nokho, ezinye izilwane zingasinda ngokufudukela kweminye.
[Umthombo]
P. Rona/OAR/National Undersea Research Program
[Ibhokisi/Isithombe ekhasin 10]
Iqhwa Elivuthayo!
Kusukela ngawo-1970, ososayensi abasebenza ngasogwini lweNyakatho Melika bathola izinsalela zesakhi esimangalisayo esibizwa ngokuthi i-methane hydrate—inhlanganisela yeqhwa negesi evuthayo i-methane. I-methane itholakala emagciwaneni asodakeni. La magciwane adla izinto ezizika olwandle. Le methane ibe isihlangana namanzi acishe abe yiqhwa ibe yizinhlayiya ze-methane hydrate. Lezi zinhlayiya zinjengamabhokisi amancane eqhwa ane-methane ngaphakathi. Ukuze zakheke, kufanele amanzi abe ngaphezudlwana kwezinga-qhwa futhi okungenani indawo ibe ngaphansi kwamamitha angu-500 ngaphansi kolwandle. Uma lezi zimo zikhona, izinhlayiya ze-methane hydrate ziba ugqinsi, zakhe ungqimba oluntantayo olunjengeqhwa. Uma isigaxa salolu ngqimba siphumela ngaphezu kwamanzi futhi sokhelwa ngomlilo, siyavutha, sikhiphe ilangabi elibomvu. Ngemva kwalokho, kusala amanzi kuphela.
I-methane hydrate iwumthombo wamandla amakhulu. Ososayensi balinganisela ukuthi izinsalela zayo cishe ziphindwe kabili kunengqikithi yazo zonke izinto zokubasa zihlangene! (Izinto zokubasa zihlanganisa amalahle, uwoyela negesi engokwemvelo—nazo ezine-methane njengesakhi esiyinhloko.) Nokho, kuze kube manje lo mthombo ocebile awutholakali ngenxa yokuthi i-methane hydrate iyahlakazeka uma ikhishwa endaweni eyakheka kuyo.
Izindawo ezine-methane hydrate nazo zinemigodi noshimula, kodwa uketshezi oluphuma kuzo luyabanda, ngokungefani nemithombo yamanzi ashisayo engaphansi kolwandle. Nokho, ngenxa yokuthi le migodi ikhipha izikhatha eziwubuthi ze-methane, i-hydrogen sulfide ne-ammonia, yondla imiphakathi echumayo yama-tube worm, izimbaza, ama-bacterium adla amakhemikhali nezinye izilwane eziningi. Amakhemikhali angcolile akhishwa yila ma-bacterium adla i-methane abangela ukwakheka kwe-limestone—sona kanye isakhi esingenangozi esakha ama-coral.c
[Umbhalo waphansi]
c Lapho ama-bacterium exuba i-methane nomoya-mpilo, kwakheka isakhi okuthiwa i-bicarbonate. Sona sihlangana nezinhlayiya ze-calcium emanzini olwandle ukuze sakhe i-calcium carbonate, ngokuvamile eyaziwa ngokuthi i-limestone. I-limestone itholakala kuzo zonke izindawo ezizungeze imithombo yamanzi abandayo kanye nakoshimula bamanzi ashisayo.
[Umdwebo/Isithombe ekhasini 4, 5]
(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)
Ungqimba lomhlaba oluphezulu
Ungqimba olungaphansi (olunengxenye encibilikile)
Iwa
I-“subduction zone”
Ungqimba lomhlaba i-“tectonic plate”
Umhosha
Lapho izingqimba zihlukana, kwakheka imihosha
[Isithombe]
Ukhahlamba lwasolwandle luzungeza imbulunga yonke njengomugqa omhlophe webhola lomphebezo
[Umthombo]
NOAA/Department of Commerce
[Ibalazwe ekhasini 7]
(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)
Amawa Nemihosha Emikhulu Yasolwandle
1. Mariana Trench
2. East Pacific Rise
3. Galápagos Rift
4. Mid-Atlantic Ridge
[Umthombo]
NOAA/Department of Commerce
[Isithombe ekhasini 8]
Izimbaza
Izimbaza zitholakala eGreen Canyon, eGulf of Mexico, ekujuleni okungaba yikhilomitha
[Umthombo]
J. Brooks/OAR/National Undersea Research Program
[Isithombe ekhasini 8, 9]
Ama-“tube worm”
Izimpaphe zawo ezintekenteke zinegazi, eligcwele i-“hemoglobin”
[Umthombo]
OAR/National Undersea Research Program
[Isithombe ekhasini 9]
Izinkalankala
Ngokuvamile lezi zilwane zidla ama-“tube worm”
[Umthombo]
I. MacDonald/OAR/National Undersea Research Program
[Isithombe ekhasini 9]
Izimbaza ezinkulu
Zingase zibe yifidi ubude, zatholakala ekujuleni okungamakhilomitha amathathu
[Umthombo]
A. Malahoff/OAR/National Undersea Research Program
[Isithombe ekhasini 9]
Ezinye izimbaza zakhishwa emanzini
[Umthombo]
Photograph by William R. Normark, USGS
[Isithombe ekhasini 9]
Izimfanzi
Ezinye zinezitho ezimbili ezinjengamehlo. Kodwa zibona kanjani endaweni emnyama bhuqe?
[Umthombo]
EMORY KRISTOF/NGS Image Collection
[Isithombe ekhasini 11]
Ama-“nanobe”
Ingabe ayizilwane ezincane kunazo zonke emhlabeni?
[Umthombo]
Dr. Philippa J. R. Uwins/University of Queensland