Ubukhazikhazi Osebalibaleka BoMbuso WaseByzantium

UMA USEBENZISA IGAMA ELITHI “BYZANTINE,” NGEZINYE IZILIMI USHO UZUNGU, IMFIHLO NOKUKHOHLISA. NOKHO, ABANTU ABANINGI ABAQAPHELI UKUTHI LESI SIPHAWULO SESINGISI SASIYIGAMA LOMBUSO OMKHULU OWACHUMA CISHE AMAKHULU ANGU-12 EMINYAKA.

KUSUKELA eCaucasus kuya e-Atlantic, kusukela eCrimea kuya eSinayi, kusukela eDanube kuya eSahara—leyo kwakuyindawo yoMbuso WaseByzantium phakathi nesikhathi sokuchuma kwawo. Izazi-mlando eziningi zithi wawukhona kusukela ngekhulu lesine kuya kwele-15 C.E. Kwakuwumbuso ongazange nje ulondoloze isiko lamaGreki namaRoma kodwa futhi waba nendima enkulu ekusakazeni lokho okuthiwa ubuKristu. Wawungumsunguli nomhleli wezinkambiso zezombangazwe, zezenhlalo nezenkolo eziye zaqhubeka zisebenza kuze kube usuku lwanamuhla.

Nokho, lo mbuso onamandla waba nesiqalo esiphansi ngokungavamile. Ngokomlando, uMbuso WaseByzantium wawungukuqhutshekiselwa phambili koMbuso WaseRoma eMpumalanga. Ukuthi waqala nini kuseyimpikiswano. Ezinye izazi-mlando zithi uDiocletian (cishe ngo-245 kuya cishe ku-316 C.E.) wayengumbusi wokuqala waseByzantium; ezinye zithi uConstantine Omkhulu (cishe ngo-275-337 C.E.); kanti ezinye zithi kwakunguJustinian I (483-565 C.E.). Kodwa abaningi bayavuma ukuthi uMbuso WaseByzantium waqala ukuvelela njengozimele lapho uMbusi uConstantine ethutha ikomkhulu lombuso wakhe elisusa eRoma eliyisa eByzantium ngo-330 C.E. Wawubiza ngaye lo muzi—iConstantinople (i-Istanbul yosuku lwanamuhla).

Ngokuthakazelisayo, ababusi noma izakhamuzi zalo mbuso abazange neze bazibize ngokuthi bangabantu baseByzantium. Babezibiza ngokuthi bangamaRoma, noma ama-Romaioi. Igama elithi “Byzantine” laqala ukusebenza ngemva kwekhulu le-14.

Inhloko-dolobha Ewubukhazikhazi

Isazi-mlando esithile sichaza iConstantinople yasendulo ngokuthi “inodumo olukhulu kanye nengcebo enkulu nakakhulu.” Njengoba yayisemngceleni weYurophu ne-Asia—eBosporus Strait—iConstantinople yayihlanganisa kokubili inhlonhlo eyisivikelo netheku elivikelekile, iGolden Horn. Ngo-657 B.C.E., izifiki ezingamaGreki zayetha ngokuthi iByzantium ngomholi wazo wodumo uByzas. Ngemva kwenkulungwane yeminyaka, yayibhekwa njengeRoma Entsha, yaba ikhaya labantu abayisigamu sesigidi ngesikhathi sokuchuma kwayo phakathi kwekhulu lesithupha nele-11 C.E.

Izivakashi zaseNtshonalanga zazimangala ngalo muzi owawuyisikhungo esiyinhloko semizila yohwebo emhlabeni. Itheku lawo laligcwala imikhumbi. Ezimakethe zawo kwakutholakala usilika, uboya, amatshe ayigugu, ukhuni olunamakha, amazinyo endlovu aqoshiwe, igolide, isiliva, imigexo eyigugu nezinongo. Ngokuqondakalayo, eminye imibuso yayiyifela umona iConstantinople, ngakho yazama iphindelela ukudiliza izindonga zayo. Ngaphambi kokuba abaseTurkey banqobe ngo-1453, abahlaseli baphumelela kanye kuphela ekunqobeni lo muzi—okuwukuthi, “amaKristu” eMpi Yenkolo Yesine. Umkhuzi wezimpi zenkolo uRober waseClari wababaza: “Akekho umuntu owake wabona noma waba nemicebo emikhulu kangaka kusukela izwe laba khona.”

Ifa Elihlala Isikhathi Eside

Nakuba kungase kukumangaze, uhulumeni, imithetho, imibono yenkolo nobukhazikhazi bemikhosi baseByzantium kusenethonya ekuphileni kwezigidi namuhla. Ngokwesibonelo, iqoqo lodumo likaJustinian lezimiso zomthetho elibizwa ngokuthi i-Corpus Juris Civilis (Indikimba Yomthetho Wezakhamuzi) laba yisisekelo somthetho waseRoma ezwekazini laseYurophu namuhla. Nge-Code Napoléon, imithetho yaseByzantium yadluliselwa eLatin America nakwamanye amazwe, lapho isasebenza khona nanamuhla.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, abaklami bezakhiwo baseByzantium bafunda indlela yokufulela isakhiwo esiwunxande ngophahla olukhulu oluphakeme—indlela yokwakha eyasakazekela ngisho naseRussia. Abanye baze bathi abantu baseByzantium yibona abasakaza ukusetshenziswa kwezimfoloko ekudleni. EVenice, ngekhulu le-11, lapho inkosazana ethile yaseByzantium isebenzisa imfoloko enamazinyo amabili esikhundleni sokudla ngesandla, ababebukele bashaqeka! Nokho, ngemva kwamakhulu eminyaka, ukusetshenziswa kwemfoloko kwaqala ukuthandwa yizicebi. Opapa baseRoma nabo balamukela ithonya laseByzantium, bathwala umqhele owawuklanywe njengowombusi waseByzantium. Amakhosi aseNgilandi nawo enza uphawu lobukhosi nentonga okwakufana nokwalowo mbusi.

Umthetho Nohlelo

UMbuso WaseByzantium washiya neqoqo elithakazelisayo lezimiso zikahulumeni. Ngokwesibonelo, abasweleyo babenikezwa umsebenzi emabhikawozi kahulumeni nasezivandeni zezimakethe. UMbusi uLeo III (cishe ngo-675-741 C.E.) wayekholelwa ukuthi “ukungenzi lutho kubangela ubugebengu.” Ngenxa yokuthi kwakukholelwa ukuthi ubudakwa buholela esiyaluyalwini nasekuvukeleni umbuso, amashibhi ayevalwa ngo-8 ebusuku. Ngokwe-National Geographic Magazine, “ukulala nesihlobo, ukubulala, ukwenza noma ukuthengisa ngasese indwangu ensomi (eyayigcinelwe abasebukhosini kuphela) noma ukufundisa izitha ukwakha umkhumbi kwakungaletha isigwebo sokunqunywa ikhanda, ukubethelwa—noma ukufakwa esakeni nengulube, iqhude, ibululu nenkawu, bese ucwiliswa emanzini. Umthengisi owayephamba abantu ngezilinganiso wayenqunywa isandla. Abashisa impahla ngomlilo babeshiswa.”

Ngokuthakazelisayo, uMbuso WaseByzantium wawunikeza nokunakekela okukhulu kusukela umuntu ezalwa aze ayofa okwenziwa yizinhlangano zikahulumeni zezenhlalakahle namuhla. Ababusi nezakhamuzi ezicebile babenza okusemandleni ukuze baxhase ngokwezimali izibhedlela, izikhungo zabahluphekayo namakhaya ezintandane. Kwakunezikhungo zabantu abafuna ukushiya ubufebe—abanye babo ababa “osanta”—ngisho nesikhungo sokuqondisa izigwegwe sabesifazane basebukhosini ababenze ububi.

Umbuso Owawuchuma Kwezohwebo

Ukuba nesandla esivuleke ngaleyo ndlela kwakubonisa ukuchuma okwakujatshulelwa yilo mbuso. UHulumeni wawulawula amanani entengo, amaholo nezintela. Kwakugcinwa ukolo ezinqolobaneni ukuze kuthasiselwe lapho isivuno singesihle. Izikhulu zazihambela izitolo ukuze zihlole izilinganiso nezikali, amabhuku ezimali nezinga lempahla edayiswayo. Ababefihla imali abayitholayo, abashushumbisi, abaphangi, abakhwabanisi nababalekela ukukhokha intela babethola isijeziso esinzima.

Umbusi ngokwakhe wayengumdayisi nomkhiqizi oyinhloko embusweni, ephethe indawo okwenziwa kuyo imali, izikhali kanye nezinto zokunethezeka zodumo zaseByzantium. UJustinian ngokwakhe wavula imboni yakhona kasilika wodumo ngamaqanda ama-silkworm ayebiwe eChina.

Kwasungulwa nezinkonzo zomshuwalense nesikweleti. Izimali zasebhange zazibalwa njalo. I-solidus yegolide, uhlamvu lwemali olwenziwa uConstantine, yalondoloza amandla ayo okuthenga iminyaka eyinkulungwane! Kwakuyimali eyayizinze kunayo yonke emlandweni.

Ihlalankosi LaseByzantium

Kwenzeka kanjani-ke ukuba igama elithi “Byzantine” lihlobane nozungu, imfihlo nokukhohlisa? Ngokwesazi-mlando uWilliam Lecky, nakuba ihlalankosi laseByzantium lalibonakala linobukhazikhazi, kwakuhlelwe “isimo esingaguquki sozungu lwabapristi, izindela nabesifazane, ukubulawa kwabantu ngobuthi, ukubophela abanye uzungu, ukuphindisela okuhle ngokubi nokubulala komuntu abafowabo noma odadewabo.”

Umlobi uMerle Severy uyaphawula: “Njengoba ayezungezwe abantu ababengase bamphuce isikhundla futhi bambulale, akekho umbusi owayehlala eyinxusa likaNkulunkulu emhlabeni isikhathi eside. Phakathi kwababusi abangu-88 kusukela kuConstantine I kuya kowe-XI, bangu-13 abangena esigodlweni sezindela. Abanye abangu-30 bafa kabuhlungu—babulawa ngendlala, ngobuthi, bakhishwa amehlo, bashaywa, baklinywa, bagwazwa, bacwiywa, banqunywa amakhanda. Ugebhezi lukaNicephorus I lwagcina luyindebe ecakwe ngesiliva uKhan Krum waseBulgaria ayephuza ngayo lapho ehalalisela izinduna [izikhulu] zakhe.”

Ngisho noConstantine Omkhulu “ongusanta” wayaleza ukuba kubulawe indodana yakhe eyizibulo nokuthi umkakhe aminziswe lapho egeza. UMbusikazi u-Irene (cishe ngo-752-803 C.E.) wayeshisekela ukuthola isikhundla kangangokuba wayaleza ukuba indodana yakhe ikhishwe amehlo futhi wathatha isikhundla sayo sokuba umbusi.

Ukuwohloka

Kodwa kwakungebona ubuqili kwezombangazwe obaholela ekuweni kwalo mbuso. INtshonalanga Yurophu yaqala ukuguquka ngeNkathi Yempucuko, iNkathi Yenguquko, iNkathi Yokukhanyiselwa kanye nangokuvelela kwesayensi. Kodwa eByzantium, noma yiluphi ushintsho lwalungabhekwa njengobumbuka kuphela kodwa ekugcineni lwalubhekwa njengobugebengu kuHulumeni.

Ngaphezu kwalokho, izinguquko zomzabalazo wezombangazwe zaqala ukuba nethonya. Ekhulwini lesi-7, ubuSulumane banda e-Antiyokiya, eJerusalema nase-Alexandria. Ukuhlasela kwamaSlav eBalkans nokunqoba kwabaseLombardy e-Italy kwavula isikhawu phakathi kweRoma neConstantinople. IRoma, njengoba yayingasenako ukusekela kombusi, yazibandakanya neNtshonalanga Jalimane eyayidlondlobala. Umbuso waseConstantinople owawuncipha waqala ukubuswa yithonya lamaGreki. Khona-ke, ngo-1054, umbhishobhi wesonto lobu-Orthodox lamaGreki nopapa wamaRoma Katolika baqeda ubudlelwano babo ngenxa yokungavumelani ngezimfundiso zenkolo, okwabangela uqhekeko phakathi kwesonto lama-Orthodox namaKatolika olungakavaleki ngisho nanamuhla.

Ngonyaka ka-1204 lo mbuso wavelelwa ngenye inhlekelele. Ngo-April 12, amabutho eMpi Yenkolo Yesine ayelibangise eJerusalema enza lokho isazi-mlando uSir Steven Runciman esikubiza ngokuthi “ubugebengu obukhulu kunabo bonke emlandweni”—ukuphanga iConstantinople. Ngokushisa impahla, ukuphanga nokudlwengula egameni likaKristu, la mabutho empi yenkolo abhubhisa umuzi futhi athatha impango yawo ayiyisa eVenice, eParis, eTurin nakwezinye izindawo zaseNtshonalanga.

Kwadlula iminyaka engaphezu kwengu-50 ngaphambi kokuba iConstantinople iphinde ithunjwe ekugcineni. Ngaleso sikhathi kwakusele nje isithunzi salo mbuso sangaphambili. AbaseVenice nabaseGenoa babephethe ezohwebo. Futhi ngokushesha ngemva kwalokho uMbuso WaseByzantium wazithola ungaphansi kokucindezela kwabaseTurkey abangamaSulumane.

Ukucindezelwa okunjalo kwaholela ekuwohlokeni kombuso okwakungenakugwenywa. Ngo-April 11, 1453, uMbusi uMehmed II wahlasela inhloko-dolobha, waphaka impi yamabutho angu-100 000 neviyo lemikhumbi elinamandla. Ingcosana yabavikeli baseConstantinople abangu-8 000 yabamba impi amasonto angu-7. Kwathi ngo-May 28, abahlaseli bangena ngetheku elalingagadiwe emseleni womuzi. Ngakusasa, inhloko-dolobha yayisisezandleni ezihlukile. UMehmed—manje owayengumnqobi—kuthiwa wakhala izinyembezi ethi: “Yeka umuzi omuhle esiwuceke ngokuwuphanga nangokuwubhubhisa!” UMbuso WaseByzantium wawusuwile. Kodwa ithonya lawo lisekhona kuze kube namuhla.

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UMBUSO WASEBYZANTIUM NEBHAYIBHELI

Ubundela babungesinye sezimiso zenkolo ezazinamandla kakhulu embusweni. Izigodlo zezindela zaziyizikhungo zokukopisha nokugcina izinkulungwane zemibhalo yesandla yeBhayibheli. Imibhalo yeBhayibheli emithathu ebaluleke kakhulu nesagcineke kahle—i-Vatican 1209, i-Sinaitic (esesithombeni esifakiwe) ne-Alexandrine (esesithombeni esingemuva)—kungenzeka yakhiqizwa noma yagcinwa ezigodlweni nasezikhungweni zenkolo zaseByzantium.

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Both manuscripts: Photograph taken by courtesy of the British Museum

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INKOLO EMBUSWENI WASEBYZANTIUM

Ekhuluma ngobudlelwano obukhulu obabukhona phakathi kweSonto noHulumeni, uNorman Davies uyabhala encwadini yakhe ethi Europe—A History: “Uhulumeni nesonto kwakuhlanganiswe kwaba yindikimba ebumbene. UMbusi . . . noMbhishobhi babebhekwa njengezinsika zezombangazwe nezenkolo zegunya laphezulu. UMbuso wawuvikela iSonto Lobu-Orthodox, iSonto lona lalidumisa uMbuso. Le nkambiso ‘yokuxhasana kukaKesari nombhishobhi’ yayingekho efana nayo kwelaseNtshonalanga.”

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IHagia Sophia, e-Istanbul—eyake yaba yisonto elikhulu kunawo wonke eByzantium, yaguqulwa yaba yithempeli ngo-1453, yabe seyenziwa umnyuziyamu ngo-1935

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(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)

IZENZAKALO EZIVELELE

Ngo-286 UDiocletian uqala ukubusa eNicomedia, e-Asia Minor

Ngo-330 UConstantine umisa umuzi owawuyiByzantium njengekomkhulu lombuso, uwetha kabusha ngokuthi iConstantinople

Ngo-395 UMbuso WaseRoma uhlukana unomphela ube nengxenye yaseMpumalanga neyaseNtshonalanga

Ngo-1054 Uqhekeko olungokwenkolo luhlukanisa iSonto LamaGreki Lobu-Orthodox neSonto LamaRoma Katolika

Ngo-1204 Amabutho eMpi Yenkolo Yesine aphanga iConstantinople

Ngo-1453 IConstantinople nombuso wayo kuwela ezandleni zabaseTurkey

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(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)

ULWANDLE OLUMNYAMA

CONSTANTINOPLE

Nicomedia

Nicaea

Ephesus

Antioch

Jerusalem

Alexandria

ULWANDLE IMEDITERRANEAN

Indawo enombala ohlukile ibonisa ubukhulu bombuso phakathi nokuchuma kwawo (ngo-527-565 C.E.)

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Izazi ziyaphikisana ngokuthi ubani owayengumbusi wokuqala waseByzantium phakathi (1) kukaDiocletian, (2) uConstantine Omkhulu, (3) noJustinian I

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Musée du Louvre, Paris

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Umdwebo embhalweni wesandla, obonisa ukuhlaselwa kweConstantinople ngo-1204

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© Cliché Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris

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Uhlamvu lwegolide lwe-“solidus,” lwango-321 C.E., olunanyathiselwe phakathi kwetshe lomgexo

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Photograph taken by courtesy of the British Museum