Icandelo 3
Inzululwazi—Iphulo Elingapheliyo Loluntu Lokufuna Inyaniso
Unqulo Nenzululwazi—Umxube Ongadibaniyo
AMAWAKA eminyaka yokuphanda ngenyaniso yenzululwazi abonakala emisele isiseko esiqinileyo sophando olwaluya kulandela. Ngokuqinisekileyo kwakungekho nto inokuxaba endleleni yenkqubela engakumbi. Yaye sekunjalo, iThe Book of Popular Science ithi, “inzululwazi yaqhuba kakubi gqitha ebudeni benkulungwane yesithathu, yesine neyesihlanu A.D.”
Iziganeko ezibini zaba negalelo eliphawulekayo kule meko. Ebudeni benkulungwane yokuqala, kwakuqalise ixesha elitsha kwezonqulo ngokubakho kukaYesu Kristu. Yaye kumashumi eminyaka aliqela ngaphambilana, ngowama-31 B.C.E., kwaqalisa ixesha elitsha lezobupolitika xa kwasekwa uBukhosi baseRoma.
Ngokungafaniyo nezithandi zobulumko zamaGrike ezawandulelayo, amaRoma “ayenomdla ngakumbi ekucombululeni iingxaki zobomi zemihla ngemihla kunasekuphandeni ngenyaniso engenasihlahla,” itsho imbekiselo echazwe ngasentla. Ngoko, ngokusengqiqweni, “abazange bafak’ isandla kangako kwinzululwazi esisiseko.”
Noko ke, amaRoma aba luncedo ekudluliseni ulwazi lwenzululwazi olwalusele lukho ukuza kuthi ga ngelo xesha. Ngokomzekelo, uPliny Omkhulu wahlanganisa ulwazi lwenzululwazi ebudeni benkulungwane yokuqala olwabizwa ngokuthi yiNatural History. Nangona lwaluneempazamo, lwakwazi ukugcina iindidi ezahlukahlukeneyo zenkcazelo yenzululwazi engezazingayifumananga izizukulwana ezilandelayo.
Ngokuphathelele unqulo, ibandla lamaKristu elalisanda ngokukhawuleza lalingabandakanyekanga kuphando lwenzululwazi lwelo xesha. Loo nto ayithethi ukuba amaKristu ayeluchasile, kodwa into eyayisiza kuqala kumaKristu, njengoko uKristu wamisela umzekelo, ngokuphandle yayikukuqonda nokusasaza inyaniso yonqulo.—Mateyu 6:33; 28:19, 20.
Ngaphambi kokuphela kwenkulungwane yokuqala, amaKristu awexukileyo ayesele eqalile ukungxenga inyaniso yonqulo awayethunywe ukuba ayisasaze. Kamva oku kwakhokelela ekubeni aseke uhlobo oluwexukileyo lobuKristu, njengoko kwakuxelwe kwangaphambili. (IZenzo 20:30; 2 Tesalonika 2:3; 1 Timoti 4:1) Iziganeko ezalandelayo zabonisa ukuba ukungayamkeli kwawo inyaniso yonqulo kwakuphelekwa sisimo sengqondo sokungabi namdla—maxa wambi kwanenkcaso—ngakwinyaniso yenzululwazi.
IYurophu “YobuKristu” Iyayeka Ukuba Yekhokelayo
IThe World Book Encyclopedia ichaza ukuba ebudeni bamaXesha Aphakathi (ukususela kwinkulungwane yesi-5 ukuya kweye-15), “eYurophu, abaphengululi babenomdla ngakumbi kwizifundo zakwalizwi, okanye izifundo zonqulo, kunezifundo ngendalo.” ICollier’s Encyclopedia ibonisa ukuba oku “kugxininisa kusindiso kunasekuphandeni ngendalo, kwaba sisithintelo ngakumbi kunokuba kuvuselele inzululwazi.”
Iimfundiso zikaKristu zazingenzelwanga ukuba zibe sisithintelo esinjalo. Sekunjalo, ingxubakaxaka yeNgqobhoko yeemfundiso zobuxoki zonqulo, kuquka ukugxininisa ngokugqithiseleyo kusindiso lomphefumlo abathi awufi, zakukhuthaza oku. Ubukhulu becala imfundo yayilawulwa yicawa yaye ubukhulu becala ifumaneka kwimizi yoonongendi. Esi simo sengqondo sonqulo saluthothisa uphando lwenyaniso yenzululwazi.
Imicimbi yenzululwazi yathabatha indawo yesibini xa ithelekiswa nezifundo zakwalizwi ukususela ekuqaleni kweXesha Eliqhelekileyo. Ekuphela kwenkqubela kwezenzululwazi enokukhankanywa yayikwezonyango. Ngokomzekelo, umbhali wezonyango ongumRoma uAulus Celsus wenkulungwane yokuqala ngeXesha Eliqhelekileyo, owayebizwa ngokuba “nguHippocrates wamaRoma,” wabhala oko namhlanje kugqalwa njengencwadi yezonyango yodidi oluphezulu. Ingcali yamayeza yomGrike uPedanius Dioscorides, ugqirha owayengumtyandi wemikhosi yaseRoma kaNero, wagqibezela incwadi esisikhokelo ebalaseleyo yamayeza neyayisetyenziswa ngokubanzi kangangeenkulungwane ezininzi. UGalen, umGrike wenkulungwane yesibini, ngokuqalisa ulingelo kwinzululwazi yamalungu omzimba, waphembelela imfundiso nokwenziwa konyango ukususela kwixesha lakhe ukuya kumaXesha Aphakathi.
Ixesha lokungenziwa kwenkqubela kwezenzululwazi laqhubeka kwanasemva kwenkulungwane ye-15. Liyinyaniso elokuba, zikho izinto ezafunyaniswa zizazinzulu zaseYurophu ebudeni beli xesha, kodwa ubukhulu becala yayingezozinto zintsha. Iphephancwadi iTime lithi oku: “[AmaTshayina] ayengawokuqala ehlabathini ukuba ziinkunkqele kwezenzululwazi. Kwakudala ngaphambi kwabantu baseYurophu, ayekwazi ukusebenzisa ikhampasi, ukwenza iphepha nerhuluwa, nokubhala ngomatshini wokushicilela onamagama anokuguqulwa.”
Ngaloo ndlela, ngenxa yokulambatha okwakusasazekile kweengcamango zenzululwazi kwiYurophu “yobuKristu,” kwagquba iimfundiso ezingezozabuKristu.
Inkqubela Yezenzululwazi
Ngenkulungwane yesithoba, izazinzulu zama-Arabhu ngokukhawuleza zazisiba ziinkokeli kwimicimbi yenzululwazi. Ngokukodwa ngenkulungwane ye-10 neye-11—ngoxa iNgqobhoko yayingenzi nkqubela—zazinandipha ulonwabo ngenxa yoko zazikufeza. Zaba negalelo elixabisekileyo kwezonyango, kwizifundo ngemichiza, ngezityalo, ngezinto eziphilayo, ngeenkwenkwezi, yaye ngaphezu kwako konke, ngemathematika. (Bona ibhokisi, ekwiphepha 19.) UMaan Z. Madina, oyinjingalwazi esisinxulumani yesi-Arabhu kwiYunivesithi yaseColumbia, uthi “isifundo setrigonometry yanamhlanje kwanealgebra negeometry ubukhulu becala ziyimisebenzi yama-Arabhu.”
Inkoliso yolu lwazi lwenzululwazi lwalulolokuqala ukufunyaniswa. Kodwa olunye lwalo lwalusekelwe kwisiseko sentanda-bulumko yamaGrike yaye lwafunyanwa, ngokumangalisayo, ngenxa yokubandakanyeka konqulo.
Xa kuthelekiswa ukususela ekuqaleni kweXesha Eliqhelekileyo, iNgqobhoko yanwenwela ePersi yaye kamva eArabia naseIndiya. Ebudeni benkulungwane yesihlanu, uNestorius, usolusapho waseConstantinople, wabandakanyeka kwingxabano eyakhokelela ekwahlukaneni kwecawa yaseMpuma. Oku kwakhokelela ekubunjweni kweqela eliqhekekileyo, elingamaNestorians.
Ngenkulungwane yesixhenxe, xa ngephanyazo kwavela unqulo olutsha lwamaSilamsi ehlabathini lwaza lwaqalisa iphulo lalo lokwanda, amaNestorians akhawuleza adlulisela ulwazi lwawo kwabo babewoyisile abangama-Arabhu. Ngokutsho kweThe Encyclopedia of Religion, “amaNestorians aba ngawokuqala ukuxhasa inzululwazi nentanda-bulumko yamaGrike ngokuguqulela iincwadi ukusuka kwisiGrike ukuya kulwimi lwaseSiriya aza aziguqulela nakwisiArabhu.” Ayekwangawokuqala “ukwazisa ngonyango lwamaGrike eBaghdad.” Izazinzulu zama-Arabhu zaqalisa ukwakhela phezu kwezinto ezazizifunde kumaNestorians. IsiArabhu sathabath’ indawo yolwimi lwaseSiriya njengolwimi lwenzululwazi kubukhosi bama-Arabhu saza sangqineka silulwimi olufanelekileyo kwimibhalo yenzululwazi.
Kodwa ama-Arabhu awazange alamkele nje kuphela ulwazi kodwa aludlulisela nakwabanye. Xa amaMoor afudukela eYurophu ngendlela yaseSpeyin—ukuya kuhlala iminyaka engama-700—azisa impucuko yamaSilamsi ekhanyiselweyo. Yaye ebudeni beeMfazwe zoMnqamlezo ezisibhozo zamaKristu, phakathi kowe-1096 nowe-1272, amajoni omnqamlezo aseNtshona amangaliswa yimpucuko ehambele phambili yamaSilamsi awadibana nayo. Omnye umbhali uyibeka ngokuthi babuya “enokuninzi okutsha okuwamangalisileyo.”
Ama-Arabhu Enza Lula Imathematika
Elinye igalelo eliphawulekayo ama-Arabhu aba nalo eYurophu yayikukuza namanani esiArabhu ukuze asetyenziswe endaweni yokusebenzisa oonobumba besiRoma. Enyanisweni, ibinzana elithi “amanani esiArabhu” alifanelekanga. Ibinzana elichane ngakumbi kusenokwenzeka ukuba lelithi “amanani esiHindu nesiArabhu.” Liyinyaniso elokuba, yingcali yemathematika nesazi ngeenkwenkwezi sama-Arabhu senkulungwane yesithoba ual-Khwārizmī esabhala le nkqubo, kodwa sasiyifumene kwingcali yemathematika engumHindu yaseIndiya, yona eyayiyiyile kwiminyaka engaphezu kweliwaka ngaphambili, kwinkulungwane yesithathu Ngaphambi kweXesha Eliqhelekileyo.
Le nkqubo yayingaziwa kangako eYurophu ngaphambi kokuba ingcali yemathematika uLeonardo Fibonacci (owayesaziwa nangokuba nguLeonardo wasePisa) ayazise ngowe-1202 kwiLiber abaci (Incwadi yezixhobo zokubala ebizwa ngokuba yiAbacus). Ebonisa ukubaluleka kwale nkqubo, wachaza oku: “Amanani asithoba esiIndiya ngala: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1. Ngala manani asithoba kunye nophawu olungu-0 . . . naliphi na inani linokubhalwa.” Kuqala abantu baseYurophu basabela kade. Kodwa ngasekupheleni kwamaXesha Aphakathi, babeyamkele le nkqubo intsha yokubala, yaye ukuba lula kwayo kwayikhawulezisa inkqubela yenzululwazi.
Ukuba uyathandabuza ukuba amanani esiHindu nesiArabhu enziwa lula kunamanani esiRoma awayesetyenziswa kuqala, zama ukuthabatha inani elingu-LXXIX ku-MCMXCIII. Ngaba udidekile? Mhlawumbi ukuthabatha ama-79 kwi-1 993 kuya kuba lula ngakumbi.
Ukuvuselela Umdla Wokufunda Kwakhona EYurophu
Ukususela ngenkulungwane ye-12, idangatye lokufunda elalivutha kumaSilamsi laqalisa ukuya licima. Noko ke, lavuselelwa kwakhona eYurophu njengoko iqela labaphengululi laliqalisa ukuseka amaziko awandulela iiyunivesithi zanamhlanje. Phakathi kwinkulungwane ye-12, kwasekwa iyunivesithi yaseParis neyaseOxford. IYunivesithi yaseCambridge yalandela ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane ye-13, kwaza kwalandela eyasePrague neyaseHeidelberg kwinkulungwane ye-14. Ngenkulungwane ye-19, iiyunivesithi zazizizazulu eziphambili zophando lwenzululwazi.
Ekuqaleni, ezi zikolo zaziphenjelelwa ngamandla lunqulo, izifundo ezininzi zazisekelwe okanye zityekele kwizifundo ngezakwalizwi. Kodwa kwangaxeshanye, ezi zikolo zaziyamkela intanda-bulumko yamaGrike, ngokukodwa imibhalo ka-Aristotle. Ngokutsho kweThe Encyclopedia of Religion, “inkqubo yeMfundo . . . ukutyhubela amaXesha Aphakathi . . . yayisakhiwa ngokwendlela ka-Aristotle yokucacisa, yokwahlulahlula neyokuqiqa ngokwenkcazelo yesicatshulwa nesicombululo sobunzima obukhoyo.”
Omnye umphengululi wenkulungwane ye-13 wayefuna ukudibanisa imfundo ka-Aristotle nezifundo zakwalizwi zamaKristu yayinguThomas Aquinas, kamva owabizwa ngokuba “nguAristotle ongumKristu.” Kodwa kwezinye iinkalo wayesahluka kuAristotle. Ngokomzekelo, uAquinas wayikhaba imfundiso yokuba ihlabathi lalisoloko likho, evumelana neZibhalo ukuba ladalwa. IThe Book of Popular Science, ithi ngokubambelela kwakhe “ngokuqinileyo kwinkolo yokuba eyethu indalo iyelungelelanisiweyo yaye inokuqondwa ngengqiqo, waba negalelo elibalulekileyo ekuvelisweni kwenzululwazi yanamhlanje.”
Noko ke, ubukhulu becala, iimfundiso zika-Aristotle, uPtolemy noGalen zamkelwa njengenyaniso eqinisekileyo nengenakuphikiswa, nkqu nayicawa. Le mbekiselo ingasentla ichaza isithi: “KumaXesha Aphakathi, xa umdla kulingelo lwenzululwazi nokuzibonela zaziphelelwa, ilizwi lika-Aristotle lalingumthetho. I-Ipse dixit (‘watsho njalo’) eso yayisisizathu izifundiswa ezazidla ngokuyingqina ngaso inyaniso yezinto ‘zenzululwazi’ ezizifumeneyo. Phantsi kwezi meko iimpazamo zika-Aristotle, ngokukodwa kwiphysics nenzululwazi ngeenkwenkwezi, zayibambezela inkqubela yenzululwazi iinkulungwane ezininzi.”
Umntu owabucel’ umngeni obu budenge bokunamathela kwiimfundiso zexesha elidluleyo yimonki yenkulungwane ye-13 yaseOxford uRoger Bacon. Wabizwa ngokuthi “yinkokeli enkulu kwinzululwazi yamaxesha aphakathi,” phantse uBacon wayeyedwa ekumeleni ulingelo njengendlela yokufunda iinyaniso zenzululwazi. Kuthiwa kwasekuqaleni kowe-1269, ngokucacileyo kwiinkulungwane ngaphambi kokuba abanye baziqonde ezi zibakala, wachaza kwangaphambili ngeenqwelo-mafutha, iinqwelo-moya neenqanawa ezihamba ngenjini.
Kanti, phezu kwako nje ukubona kusengaphambili nengqondo ekrelekrele, uBacon wayenolwazi olulinganiselweyo lwenyaniso. Wayekholelwa kakhulu ekuvumiseni ngeenkwenkwezi, kumlingo nakwinzululwazi yamachiza. Oku kubonisa ukuba inzululwazi ngokwenene iluphando oluqhubekayo lwenyaniso, isoloko ilindele ukuguqulwa.
Nangona uphando lwenzululwazi lwabonakala luthe cwaka ngenkulungwane ye-14, njengoko inkulungwane ye-15 yayisiya ekupheleni, iphulo loluntu lokuphanda ngenyaniso yenzululwazi kwakusekude ukuba luphele. Enyanisweni, iminyaka engama-500 elandelayo yayiya kukugqitha lee oko kwakusele kufunyenwe ngaphambili. Ihlabathi lalisemgubasini wenguqulelo kwezenzululwazi. Yaye njengoko kusiba njalo ngalo lonke ixesha leenguqulelo, ezi zaziza kuba namagorha azo, neentshaba zazo, yaye ngaphezu kwako konke, amaxhoba azo. Funda okungakumbi kwiCandelo 4 elithi “Inzululwazi—Iphulo Elingapheliyo Loluntu Lokufuna Inyaniso” kwinkupho yethu elandelayo.
[Ibhokisi ekwiphepha 19]
Ixesha Lemincili Kwinzululwazi Yama-Arabhu
Ual-Khwārizmī (ngenkulungwane yesibhozo), ingcali yemathematika nesazi ngeenkwenkwezi saseIraq; waziwa ngokuza nebinzana elithi “algebra,” elisuka kual-jebr, ngesiArabhu elithetha “ukudityaniswa kwamacandelo ophukileyo.”
UAbū Mūsā Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (ngenkulungwane yesibhozo neyethoba), isazi ngemichiza; wayebizwa ngokuba nguyise wezifundo zemichiza zama-Arabhu.
Ual-Battānī (ngenkulungwane yesithoba neyeshumi), isazi ngeenkwenkwezi nengcali yemathematika waphucula indlela kaPtolemy yokubala ngeenkwenkwezi, ngaloo ndlela emisela indlela echanileyo ngakumbi yokubala izinto ezifana nobude bonyaka namaxesha onyaka.
UAr-Rāzī (Rhazes) (ngenkulungwane yesithoba neyeshumi), omnye woogqirha abaziwayo abazalelwa ePersi; waba ngowokuqala ukuphawula umahluko phakathi kwengqakaqha nemasisi nokwahlula zonke izinto ngokodidi lwezilwanyana, izityalo okanye izimbiwa.
UAbū ‘Alī al-Ḥasan ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) waseBasra (ngenkulungwane ye-10 ukuya kweye-11), ingcali yemathematika negcisa lephysics; waba negalelo elingathethekiyo kwingcamango yokuguquguquka kwemitha yokukhanya kuquka ukugoba kwemitha isakubetheka, ukubonakala komfanekiso wento kwizinto ezifana namanzi, ukubona into usebenzisa amehlo omabini nokugoba kwemitha emoyeni, waba ngowokuqala ukuchaza ngokuchanileyo ukuba ukubona kwenzeka ngenxa yokubetheka kwemitha yokukhanya entweni ize ibuyele elisweni.
UOmar Khayyám (ngenkulungwane ye-11 neye-12), ingcali yemathematika edumileyo yasePersi, isazi ngephysics, isazi ngeenkwenkwezi, ugqirha nesithandi sobulumko; eNtshona waziwa kakhulu ngemibongo yakhe.
[Imifanekiso ekwiphepha 17]
UAristotle (ngasentla) noPlato (ngezantsi) bayiphembelela ngamandla imfundiso yenzululwazi ukutyhubela iinkulungwane
[Inkcazelo]
National Archaeological Museum of Athens
Musei Capitolini, Roma