Icandelo 4

Inzululwazi—Iphulo Elingapheliyo Loluntu Lokufuna Inyaniso

Ukuhlaziywa Kwenzululwazi Ziinguqulelo

KWABAKHO iziphithiphithi ehlabathini ebudeni besiqingatha sesibini senkulungwane ye-18 njengoko iinguqulelo zaziguqula ezobupolitika, okokuqala eMerika, kwaza kwalandela iFransi. Ngelo thuba, uhlobo olwahlukileyo lwenguqulelo lwaqalisa eNgilani, iinguqulelo kwezorhwebo. Zazinento yokwenza nolunye uhlobo lweenguqulelo, ezenzululwazi.

Bambi bakuchaza oku kuhlaziywa kwenzululwazi ukususela kwiminyaka yee-1540, xa isazi ngeenkwenkwezi sasePoland uNicolaus Copernicus nomfundi ngamalungu omzimba waseBelgium uAndreas Vesalius bapapasha iincwadi ezazichaphazela ngokunzulu iingcamango zenzululwazi. Abanye baluqikelela olu tshintsho ngaphambilana, ngowe-1452, ekuzalweni kukaLeonardo da Vinci. Umntu owayesoloko esenza ulingelo nowaba negalelo elikhulu kwinzululwazi, uLeonardo wavelisa iingcamango ezathi kwiimeko ezithile zaba ziziqalo zezinto ezaveliswayo ezathi zenziwa zagqibelela kwiinkulungwane kamva, ezifana nenqwelo-moya, inqwelo enqatyisiweyo yemfazwe, neparachute.

UErnest Nagel, injingalwazi edla umhlala-phantsi kwiYunivesithi yaseColumbia, uthi, kodwa njengoko siyazi inzululwazi, “ayizange imiselwe ngokuqinileyo njengephulo eliqhubekayo kubantu baseNtshona de kwayinkulungwane yeshumi elinesixhenxe neyeshumi elinesibhozo.” Isakuba imiselwe, kwafikelelwa kwinqanaba elibalulekileyo kwimbali yabantu. Incwadi ethi The Scientist ithi: “Malunga nowe-1590 nowe-1690 isihlwele seenkcuba-buchopho . . . savelisa uphando olwalunempumelelo engenakuthelekiswa nayo nayiphi na kwiminyaka eli-100.”

Iintshaba Zenza Mnyama Indlela

Inzululwazi yobuxoki nayo yanda, ngokufana neentshaba ezathi iingcamango zazo zaxaba kwindlela yenkqubela yokwenene yenzululwazi. Ingcamango yokuba izinto ezitshayo zinephlogiston yayiyenye yezi. Igama elithi “phlogiston,” lisuka kwisiGrike, lithetha “ukutshiswa.” Yachazwa okokuqala ngowe-1702 nguGeorge Ernst Stahl, owayekholelwa ukuba xa kutshiswa izinto ezitshayo kwakuphuma iphlogiston. Wayecinga ukuba ingumthetho nje kunokuba ibe yinto yokwenene, kodwa inkolelo yokuba yayiyinto yokwenene yanda njengokuba iminyaka yayihamba. Kwaba phakathi konyaka we-1770 nowe-1790 awathi uAntoine-Laurent Lavoisier wakwazi ukuyiphikisa le ngcamango.

IThe Book of Popular Science iyavuma ukuba nangona ingcamango yephlogiston “yayingachananga kwaphela, sekunjalo okwexesha elithile yanikela iindlela ezazinokuchazwa ngokusekelwe kuyo izinto ezininzi ezenzeka ngokwemvelo. Yayiyenye yeendlela zokuchaza izinto ezavavanywayo zaza zafunyaniswa zingeyonyaniso njengokuba iminyaka ihamba.”

Imfundiso yealchemy yayilolunye utshaba. IHarrap’s Illustrated Dictionary of Science iyichaza “njengomxube wentanda-bulumko, imfihlelo nobugcisa bemichiza, eyaqalisa ngaphambi kwexesha lobuKristu, efuna iindlela ezahlukeneyo zokuguqula izinto ezenziwe ngesinyithi zibe yigolide, ukolula ubomi bube bude nemfihlelo yokungafi.” Ngaphambi kokuba iphikiswe, le mfundiso yealchemy yanceda ekubekweni kwesisekelo sechemistry yanamhlanje, inguqulelo eyagqityezelwa ekupheleni kwenkulungwane ye-17.

Ngoko nangona ziziintshaba, imfundiso yephlogiston neyealchemy zaziluncedo ngandlel’ ithile. Noko ke, kwakungenjalo ngeentshaba ezingabantu ezathi ngenxa yempembelelo yonqulo zakhuthaza isimo sengqondo sokuchasa inzululwazi. Ubutshaba phakathi kwenzululwazi nonqulo—zombini ezazizibanga zikuphela kwezinokuthenjwa kwimicimbi yendalo iphela—ngokufuthi buye bakhokelela kungquzulwano olupheleleyo.

Ngokomzekelo, ngenkulungwane yesibini yeXesha Eliqhelekileyo, isazi ngeenkwenkwezi esidumileyo uPtolemy sayila ingcamango yegeocentric, okuthetha ukuba ngoxa izijikelezi-langa zihamba kwisangqa esijikeleza ilanga, umbindi wesi sangqa obizwa ngokuthi yiepicycle (isangqa esijikeleza kuso isijikelezi-langa) nawo uyajikeleza kwesinye isangqa. Yayibubuchule bemathematika obubalaseleyo yaye yachaza oko kubonakala ngathi kukushukuma kwelanga, inyanga, izijikelezi-langa neenkwenkwezi esibhakabhakeni eyathi yamkelwa ngokubanzi de yayinkulungwane ye-16.

UCopernicus (1473-1543) wavelisa ingcamango eyahlukileyo. Wayekholelwa ekubeni nangona izijikelezi-langa, kuquka umhlaba, zijikeleza ilanga, ilanga lona limile. Le ngcamango—umhlaba ohambayo ongasesosazulu sendalo—ukuba iyinyaniso, yayiya kuba nemiphumo engathethekiyo. Kungaphelanga neminyaka elikhulu, isazi ngeenkwenkwezi somTaliyane uGalileo Galilei esebenzisa izibonisi kude (telescopes) wenza uphando olwamenza weyiseka lelokuba ingcamango kaCopernicus yokuba umhlaba ujikeleza ilanga ngokwenene yayichanile. Kodwa iCawa yamaKatolika yazikhaba izimvo zikaGalileo njengezibangela uqhekeko yaza yamnyanzela ukuba arhoxe.

Iimpazamo zonqulo zabangela abafundi ngezakwalizwi bayikhanyele inyaniso yenzululwazi. Kwaba semva kweminyaka engama-360 kuphela eyathi icawa yazisusa izityholo zoqhekeko kuGalileo. IL’Osservatore Romano, kuhlelo lwayo lweveki ngeeveki lukaNovemba 4, 1992, yavuma ukuba ityala likaGalileo “lagwetywa phosakeleyo.”

Iintshaba Zisekho Unanamhla

Ngokukwanjalo, kule nkulungwane yama-20, iinkonzo zeNgqobhoko zibonisa ukungayihloneli inyaniso okufanayo. Oku zikwenza ngokuxhasa iingcamango zobuxoki zenzululwazi ngoxa ikho inyaniso, kwinzululwazi nakunqulo. Owona mzekelo ubalaseleyo ingcamango engachananga yendaleko, ngokusisiseko eyinzala “yolwazi” lwenzululwazi neemfundiso zonqulo lobuxoki oluneempazamo ezininzi.a

UCharles Darwin wapapasha incwadi yakhe ethi On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection ngoNovemba 24, 1859. Kodwa ingcamango yendaleko enyanisweni ivela kumaxesha angaphambi kobuKristu. Ngokomzekelo, isithandi sobulumko samaGrike uAristotle wenza umfanekiso womntu ongumphumo wokugqibela wokuguquguquka kwezilwanyana zisuka kwesona siphantsi. Ekuqaleni, abefundisi bayikhaba ingcamango kaDarwin, kodwa iThe Book of Popular Science ithi: “Indaleko [kamva] yaba yinto engakumbi kunengcamango yenzululwazi . . . Yaba yintlaba-mkhosi yaye yada yaba yintanda-bulumko.” Abantu ababezabalazela ukufumana isigxina esiphezulu ebomini babhenela kwingcamango yokuba ophumeleleyo ngoyena unamandla.

Ukuxhathisa kwabefundisi kungekudala kwaphela. IThe Encyclopedia of Religion ithi, “ingcamango kaDarwin yendaleko ayizange yamkeleke nje kuphela kodwa yaqhwatyelw’ izandla,” yaye “ngethuba lokufa kwakhe ngowe-1883, inkoliso yabefundisi abacingayo nabanobuchule babefikelele kwisigqibo sokuba indaleko yayivisisana ngokupheleleyo nokuqonda okukhanyisiweyo kwezibhalo.”

Oku kuyaphikisana noko kwavunywa yiThe Book of Popular Science xa yathi: “Nkqu nabona baxhasi baphambili bemfundiso yendaleko yezinto eziphilayo kwafuneka bavume ukuba kwakukho ukungachani nemisantsa ecacileyo kwimfundiso kaDarwin.” Ithi “inkoliso yeengcamango zikaDarwin ziye zalungiswa okanye zalahlwa,” le ncwadi ithi sekunjalo “impembelelo [yendaleko] phantse kuyo yonke imizabalazo yabantu ibe nkulu kakhulu. Ezembali, inzululwazi yokumbiwa kwezinto zakudala, nenzululwazi engemvelaphi yeentlanga ziye zaguqulwa kakhulu ngenxa yale ngcamango.”

Namhlanje, uninzi lwezazinzulu ezicingayo ziyithandabuza ngokunzulu ingcamango yendaleko. UMhlekazi uFred Hoyle, umseki weZiko Lenzululwazi Ngeenkwenkwezi LaseCambridge okwalilungu leZiko Lesizwe Lemfundo YeNzululwazi LaseMerika, kwiminyaka elishumi eyadlulayo wabhala: “Mna, phantse ndiqinisekile ukuba ababhali-mbali benzululwazi bexesha elizayo baya kuyifumana ingummangaliso into yokuba ingcamango yendaleko ebonakala ingenakusebenziseka ibe yakholelwa kakhulu kangako.”

Ekubeni ihlasela kanye eyona ndlela umntu wabakho ngayo, indaleko ibangela ukuba uMdali angafumani oko kumfaneleyo. Ikwabangela lingabi yonyaniso ibango layo lokuba yinzululwazi yaye ayifaki sandla kwiphulo loluntu elingapheliyo lokuphanda ngenyaniso yenzululwazi. UKarl Marx wakuvuyela ukwamkela indaleko nokuba ‘ophumelelayo ngoyena unamandla’ ukuze axhase ukuvela kobuKomanisi. Kodwa ilolona tshaba lucekisekayo.

Ngoobani Abangamaxhoba?

Nabani na olukuhlelwa ekubeni akholelwe kwiingcamango zenzululwazi yobuxoki uba lixhoba. Kodwa kwanokukholelwa iinyaniso zenzululwazi kuneengozi. Inkqubela kwezenzululwazi enomtsalane eyabangelwa ziinguqulelo kwinzululwazi yakhohlisela abaninzi ekubeni bakholelwe ukuba ngoku kwakungekho nto ingenakuyifikelela.

Le nkolelo yomelezwa njengoko inkqubela yenzululwazi yayiqhubeka ikhukulisa isimo sengqondo sokuchasa inzululwazi unqulo lobuxoki olwakha lwasinyanzelisa. Ezorhwebo nezobupolitika zaqalisa ukuyiqonda inzululwazi njengesixhobo esinamandla ezinokusisebenzisela ukuphumeza usukelo lwazo, enoba kungomvuzo wemali okanye ngokumanyaniswa kwamagunya ezobupolitika.

Kwakubonakala ngokucacileyo ukuba, inzululwazi yayikhula ngokuthe ngcembe ekubeni sisithixo, nto leyo eyavelisa iscientism. IWebster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary iyichaza ngokuthi “kukuthembela ngokugqithiseleyo kumandla enkqubo yenzululwazi yezinto zendalo asetyenziswa kuwo wonke ummandla wophando.”

Njengoko inkulungwane ye-19 yayisondela esiphelweni, abantu bazibuza ukuba yayiza kuza nantoni na inkulungwane yama-20. Ngaba inzululwazi yayiza kukwazi ukuzisa “izulu lokwenene emhlabeni” abaninzi ababecinga ukuba iya kukwazi ukulivelisa? Okanye ngaba iintshaba zayo zaziya kuqhubeka zisuba amaxhoba angakumbi? Umxholo othi “Ukwenza ‘Umlingo’ Wenkulungwane Yama-20” okwinkupho yethu elandelayo, uza kuphendula.

[Umbhalo osemazantsi]

[Ibhokisi ekwiphepha 20]

Xa Unokungabikho Umbane

KUTSHANJE ekuqaleni kwenkulungwane ye-19, umbane wawugqalwa uyinto ebangel’ umdla kodwa engeloncedo kangako. Amadoda asuka kumazwe awahlukahlukeneyo naneemvelaphi ezahlukahlukeneyo, kuquka noH. C. Ørsted (1777-1851), uM. Faraday (1791-1867), uA. Ampère (1775-1836), noB. Franklin (1706-90), afumanisa izinto ezibalulekileyo, phofu ke, ezafunyaniswa ngezinye iindlela, ngaloo ndlela zibeka isiseko sombane wanamhlanje—nkqubo leyo ekungenakusetyenzwa ngaphandle kombane kuyo.

[Imifanekiso ekwiphepha 21]

Nicolaus Copernicus

UGalileo Galilei

[Inkcazelo]

Photos taken from Giordano Bruno and Galilei (German edition)