Ngaba Iziqalelo Zendalo Zabakho Ngamabona-ndenzile?
ITHE ENCYCLOPEDIA OF STARS & ATOMS ithi: “Nantoni na ekuMmandla Wendalo, kwaneyona nkwenkwezi ikude, yenziwe ngeeathom.” Iiathom zincinane gqitha ukuba zingabonakala, kodwa xa zidibene zibumba iziqalelo zemichiza eziqhelekileyo. Ezinye zezi ziqalelo zizinto ezibonakalayo; ezinye ziigesi ezingabonakaliyo. Ngaba kunokuthiwa zonke ezi ziqalelo zemichiza zabakho ngamabona-ndenzile?
Iziqalelo Zendalo Ezingama-92
Nangona ihydrogen iyeyona athom iqhelekileyo, ixhasa iinkwenkwezi ezifana nelanga yaye ibalulekile kwizinto eziphilayo. Iathom yehydrogen ineproton enye ngaphakathi kuyo ne-electron enye ejikeleza apho ngaphakathi. Ezinye iziqalelo zemichiza, ezinjengekharbhon, ioksijin, igolide, nemekyuri, zenziwe ngeeathom ezinee-electron ezijikeleza kuninzi lweeproton neeneutron.
Kwiminyaka engama-450 eyadlulayo, kwakusaziwa nje iziqalelo zemichiza ezili-12. Njengoko kwakusiya kufunyaniswa ezingakumbi, izazinzulu zaphawula ukuba zilungelelene ngokwemvelo. Yaye xa ezi ziqalelo zabekwa kwisicangca ngokwemigca nemiqolo, izazinzulu zafumanisa ukuba iziqalelo ezikumqolo omnye zineempawu ezifanayo. Kodwa kwakukho izikhewu kwesi sicangca, ezimela iziqalelo ezingaziwayo. Le nto yabangela isazinzulu saseRashiya uDmitry Mendeleyev aqikelele ukuba kukho isiqalelo esinenombolo yeathom engama-32, igermanium, kwakunye nombala, ubunzima, umthamo nomlinganiselo enyibilika ngawo. Incwadi yenzululwazi yowe-1995 iChemistry ithi: “Uqikelelo lukaMendeleyev ngezinye iziqalelo ezazingekabikho—-i-gallium ne-scandium—nalo lwangqineka luchanile.”
Ekuhambeni kwexesha, izazinzulu zaqikelela ezinye iziqalelo zendalo ezingaziwayo nenxalenye yemisebenzi yazo. Ekugqibeleni zonke iziqalelo ezazingaziwa zafunyaniswa. Isicangca ezidweliswe kuso asisenazikhewu. Ulungelelwano olungokwemvelo lweziqalelo lusekelwe kwinani leeproton elingaphakathi kwiiathom zazo, ziqala kwisiqalelo sokuqala, ihydrogen, luze luqhube ke luye kuthi xhaxhe kwesokugqibela ngokuqhelekileyo esizivelela ngokwemvelo emhlabeni, sama-92, esiyiuranium. Ngaba oku kwenzeka ngengozi?
Kwakhona, khawucinge ngentarha-ntarha yeziqalelo zemichiza. Igolide nemekyuri ziziqalelo ezinemibala eqaqambe ngokukhethekileyo. Esinye siqinile, esinye silulwelo. Kodwa, ziyalandelelana, esinye sesama-79 esinye sesama-80. Iathom yegolide inee-electron ezingama-79, iiproton ezingama-79 neeneutron ezili-118. Iathom yemekyuri ine-electron enye ethe chatha, neproton enye ethe chatha, neeneutron ezimalunga nenani elifanayo.
Ngaba kwenzeke ngamabona-ndenzile ukuba kubekho utshintsho olungephi ekulungelelanisweni kwamasuntswana eathom ukuba akwazi ukuvumela intarha-ntarha yeziqalelo? Yaye kuthekani ngamandla adibanisa amasuntswana eathom? IThe Encyclopedia of Stars & Atoms ithi: “Ukususela kwelona suntswana lincinane ukuya kutsho kowona mnyele mkhulu, yonke into ekuMmandla weNdalo ilandela imiyalelo efumaneka kwimithetho yemvelo.” Khawube nomfanekiso-ngqondweni woko bekuya kwenzeka ukuba omnye waloo miyalelo ubuya kutshintsha. Ngokomzekelo, kuthekani ukuba bekuya kwenzeka utshintsho kumandla abangela ukuba iielectron zijikeleze ngaphakathi kwiathom?
Amandla Endalo Alungelelaniswe Kakuhle
Khawucinge nje ngoko bekuya kwenzeka ukuba amandla ombane nemagnethi ebeya kwenziwa buthathaka. UGqr. David Block uthi kwincwadi yakhe ethi Star Watch: “Ii-electron bezingasayi kuphinda zidibane neeathom.” Bekuya kuthetha ntoni oko? Wongezelela ngelithi: “Kummandla wethu wendalo bekungayi kubakho michiza isebenzayo!” Hayi indlela esinombulelo ngayo ngokuba nemithetho emiselweyo eyenza ukuba kusebenze imichiza! Ngokomzekelo, iiathom ezimbini zehydrogen zidibana neathom enye yeoksijin ukuze kubekho imolekyuli yamanzi axabisekileyo.
Amandla ombane nemagnethi angaphantsi ngokuphindwe kali-100 kunamandla enyukliya adibanisa iiathom. Bekunokwenzeka ntoni ukuba ubunokutshintshwa lo mlinganiselo? Isazinzulu uJohn Barrow noFrank Tipler bathi: “Ukuba amandla abonakalayo enyukliya nawombane nemagnethi ebenokwahluka kancinane bezingenakubakho iiathom zekharbhon.” Ngaphandle kwekharbhon bekungayi kubakho nto iphilayo. Iiathom zekharbhon zimela ama-20 ekhulwini obunzima bazo zonke izinto eziphilayo.
Enye into ebalulekileyo ngamandla ombane nemagnethi xa ethelekiswa namandla omxhuzulane. Iphephancwadi iNew Scientist lithi: “Olona tshintsho luncinane olunokwenzeka kumandla abonakalayo omxhuzulane nawombane nemagnethi anokutshintsha iinkwenkwezi ezifana neLanga zibe ziingqimba ezinkulu eziluhlaza [zibe shushu gqitha ukuba kungakho nto iphilayo] okanye iingqakumbana ezibomvu [zingabi shushu ngokwaneleyo ukuba zinganyamekela ubomi].”
Amanye amandla, abuthathaka enyukliya, alawula isantya senyukliya elangeni. Ingcali yemichiza uFreeman Dyson ithi: “Abuthathaka kanye ngendlela efanelekileyo ukuze i-hydrogen eselangeni itshe kancinane ngomlinganiselo ophantsi.” Kukho neminye imizekelo emininzi ebonisa indlela ubomi bethu obuxhomekeke ngayo kwimigaqo neemeko ezilungeleleneyo ezifumaneka kummandla wendalo. Umbhali wezenzululwazi uNjingalwazi Paul Davies wathelekisa le migaqo neemeko zommandla wendalo namaqhosha athile waza wathi: “Kubonakala ngathi amaqhosha awahlukahlukeneyo afanele ajijwe ngobuchule obukhulu ukuze kuqinisekwe ngokwenene ukuba umhlaba uya kuyibangela indalo ichume.”
Kude kudala ngaphambi kokuba uMhlekazi uIsaac Newton afumanise umthetho womxhuzulane, iBhayibhile yathetha ngemiyalelo okanye imithetho emiselweyo. Indoda enguYobhi yabuzwa lo mbuzo: “Nguwe na ochaze imimiselo elawula amazulu, okanye owise imithetho yendalo emhlabeni?” (Yobhi 38:33, The New English Bible) Eminye imibuzo ethobayo yile, “Wawuphi na ekusekeni kwam umhlaba?” nothi, “Ngubani owamisa imilinganiselo yawo, ukuba uyazi?”—Yobhi 38:4, 5.
[Ibhokisi ekwiphepha 6]
IZIQALELO ZENDALO EZIBALULEKILEYO
Iziqalelo zemichiza ihydrogen, ioksijin nekharbhon zibumba ama-98 ekhulwini eeathom ezisemzimbeni wakho. Kukho nenitrogen, ebumba i-1,4 ekhulwini. Ezinye iziqalelo zivela zincinane kodwa ke zibalulekile kwizinto eziphilayo.
[Isicangca/Umzobo okwiphepha 6, 7]
(Ukuba ufuna inkcazelo ehlahlelwe kakuhle, yiya kwimpapasho)
Ngexesha lokupapashwa kweli nqaku ziye zavelisa isiqalelo sendalo 93 nangaphezulu, ukuya kutsho nakwisiqalelo sendalo 118. Kuqikelelwa ukuba ezi ziqalelo ziyangena kuludwe lwamaxesha.
[Inkcazelo]
Umthombo: Los Alamos National Laboratory
Igama lesiqalelo Umqondiso Inani leathom (inani leeproton)
Ihydrogen H 1
helium He 2
lithium Li 3
beryllium Be 4
boron B 5
carbon C 6
nitrogen N 7
oxygen O 8
fluorine F 9
neon Ne 10
sodium Na 11
magnesium Mg 12
aluminium Al 13
silicon Si 14
phosphorus P 15
sulfur S 16
chlorine Cl 17
argon Ar 18
potassium K 19
calcium Ca 20
scandium Sc 21
titanium Ti 22
vanadium V 23
chromium Cr 24
manganese Mn 25
iron Fe 26
cobalt Co 27
nickel Ni 28
copper Cu 29
zinc Zn 30
gallium Ga 31
germanium Ge 32
arsenic As 33
selenium Se 34
bromine Br 35
krypton Kr 36
rubidium Rb 37
strontium Sr 38
yttrium Y 39
zirconium Zr 40
niobium Nb 41
molybdenum Mo 42
technetium Tc 43
ruthenium Ru 44
rhodium Rh 45
palladium Pd 46
silver Ag 47
cadmium Cd 48
indium In 49
tin Sn 50
antimony Sb 51
tellurium Te 52
iodine I 53
xenon Xe 54
cesium Cs 55
barium Ba 56
lanthanum La 57
cerium Ce 58
praseodymium Pr 59
neodymium Nd 60
promethium Pm 61
samarium Sm 62
europium Eu 63
gadolinium Gd 64
terbium Tb 65
dysprosium Dy 66
holmium Ho 67
erbium Er 68
thulium Tm 69
ytterbium Yb 70
lutetium Lu 71
hafnium Hf 72
tantalum Ta 73
tungsten W 74
rhenium Re 75
osmium Os 76
iridium Ir 77
platinum Pt 78
gold Au 79
mercury Hg 80
thallium Tl 81
lead Pb 82
bismuth Bi 83
polonium Po 84
astatine At 85
radon Rn 86
francium Fr 87
radium Ra 88
actinium Ac 89
thorium Th 90
protactinium Pa 91
uranium U 92
neptunium Np 93
plutonium Pu 94
americium Am 95
curium Cm 96
berkelium Bk 97
californium Cf 98
einsteinium Es 99
fermium Fm 100
mendelevium Md 101
nobelium No 102
lawrencium Lr 103
rutherfordium Rf 104
dubnium Db 105
seaborgium Sg 106
bohrium Bh 107
hassium Hs 108
meitnerium Mt 109
110
111
112
114
116
118
[Umzobo]
(Ukuba ufuna inkcazelo ehlahlelwe kakuhle, yiya kwimpapasho)
Ngaba ulungelelwano lweziqalelo zendalo ezikuludwe lwexesha zenzeka ngamabona-ndenzile okanye zadalwa ngobukrelekrele?
Iathom ihelium
Ielectron
Iproton
Ineutron
[Umzobo/Umfanekiso okwiphepha 7]
(Ukuba ufuna inkcazelo ehlahlelwe kakuhle, yiya kwimpapasho)
Ziye zalungelelaniswa njani kakuhle ezi ndidi zine zamandla?
UMBANE NEMAGNETHI
INYUKLIYA ENAMANDLA
UMXHUZULANE
INYUKLIYA EBUTHATHAKA
Imolekyuli yamanzi
Umphakathi weathom
Iingqimba eziluhlaza
Iingqakumbana ezibomvu
Ilanga