Ukukhohlisa Kwesayensi—Isizathu Sokuba Kwande
“UMNCINTISWANO uwubudlova. Abaphumelele bavuna imivuzo emikhulu kakhulu; abahlulwayo isithukuthuku senja siphelela eboyeni. Kuyisimo lapho ngezinye izikhathi ukwenza izinto ngendlela engekho emthethweni kungenakuvinjelwa—kukaningi ngenxa yokuthi uMbuso uqaphe kakhulu ngokuqondene nokubhekana nesenzo sokungalungi.” Saqalisa kanjalo isihloko esithi “Isakaze Noma Yiqede—Noma Uyiphendukezele” kuyiU.S.News & World Report. Ukuze bagweme ukuba iqedwe, abacwaningi abaningi besayensi bayayiphendukezela.
Ukucindezela kokuba ososayensi banyathelise emaphephandabeni esayensi kuyashaqisa. Lapho kunohlu olude lwamaphepha amaningi anyatheliswe egameni lomcwaningi, yilapho eba namathuba amaningi omsebenzi, ukwenyuswa esikhundleni, isikhundla esiphambili eYunivesithi, futhi uhulumeni uyanikela ukuze akhokhele ukucwaninga kwakhe. Uhulumeni ohlangene “ulawula umthombo omkhulu kakhulu wokusekela ukucwaninga ngokwezimali, [izigidi eziyizinkulungwane eziyi-R14,6] ngonyaka ezivela eMikhandlwini Yenhlangano Yesizwe Yempilo.”
Ngenxa yokuthi “umphakathi ongokwesayensi awubonisi sithakazelo sokubhekana nenkinga yawo enkulu engokokuziphatha,” “ubumadolo-nzima kakhulu ukuhlola ngokujulile ukwaziswa okunzima ngokuziphatha kwawo okwamukelekayo,” futhi “awunaso isifiso sokuhlanza indlu noma ngisho nokuqaphelisisa ukwephulwa komthetho,” amakomiti ombutho aye aba nemihlangano futhi acabangela ukubekwa kwemithetho ezokwenza umsebenzi wokuba iso lawo. (New Scientist; U.S.News & World Report) Lelithemba libangela okukhulu ukukhala nokugedla amazinyo kososayensi. Nokho, elinye iphephabhuku lesayensi libuza futhi liphendule lombuzo: “Ingabe indlu yesayensi ihlanzekile futhi ihlelekile? Ubufakazi obuncane obaziwa umphakathi buletha ukungabaza okungathi sína.”
Abanye abacwaningi bayakukhipha ukwaziswa okungakusekeli lokho abafuna ukukuqinisekisa (okubizwa ngokuthi icooking); babika ukuhlola okuningi ngaphezu kwalokho okwakwenziwe ngokoqobo (okubizwa ngokuthi itrimming); bathatha ukwaziswa noma imicabango yabanye abacwaningi ukuze bakusebenzise bona siqu (okubizwa ngokuthi iplagiarism); futhi benza ukuhlola noma ukwaziswa abangazange neze baze bakufinyelele noma bakukhiqize (okubizwa ngokuthi iforging). Umfanekiso ohlekisayo ephephandabeni lesayensi wenza ihlaya ngalelisu lokugcina, omunye usosayensi ekhuluma nomunye futhi esho lokhu ngososayensi okukhulunywa ngaye: ‘Usebhale izincwadi eziningi selokhu aqala ukwenza loyamsebenzi wobunyoningco wokubhala.’
“Uyini umkhiqizo oyinhloko wokucwaninga kwesayensi kulezinsuku? Impendulo: Iphepha,” kwasho iU.S.News & World Report. “Kusungulwa amakhulu amaphephabhuku amasha unyaka ngamunye ukuze kubhekwane nentilibathwa yamaphepha okucwaninga akhiqizwa izikhathi eziningi ngososayensi abaziyo ukuthi umgwaqo obheke empumelelweni yemfundo ephakeme uhlu olude lwezihloko eziletha udumo kubo.” Umgomo olwelwayo yinani hhayi izinga eliphakeme. Amaphephabhuku ayizinkulungwane ezingamashumi amane anyatheliswa unyaka ngamunye akhiqiza izihloko eziyisigidi, futhi ingxenye yalentilibathwa “inezimpawu zokugula okukhulu, kuhlanganise nesimiso sokuthi sakaza noma uyeke phakathi kwabacwaningi manje esesinamandla kakhulu kunangaphambili futhi esikhuthaza umsebenzi owenziwe ngokunganaki, ophindaphinda into eyodwa, ongenamsebenzi noma ngisho okhohlisayo.”
Umhleli ophethe weJournal of the American Medical Association, uDkt. Drummond Rennie, wakhuluma ngokuntuleka komsebenzi weqophelo eliphakeme: “Kubonakala kungekho ukuhlola okungaphelele kakhulu, ingekho imfundiso evame kakhulu, singekho isikhombo sencwadi esingavulekele ekwamukeleni noma yimuphi umbono noma esinokubaluleka komuntu siqu kakhulu, lingekho isu elisonteke kakhulu, zingekho izinqubo ezonakele kakhulu, kungekho ukukhishwa kwemiphumela okungaqondile kakhulu, okufiphele kakhulu, futhi okushayisana kakhulu, kungekho ukuhlaziya okusebenzela izinzuzo zomuntu siqu, kungekho maphuzu abekwe ngokungaqondile, kungekho ziphetho ezibonakala ziyize noma zingekho emthethweni kakhulu, futhi lungekho uhlelo lolimi nokuhlelwa kwemisho okucasula kangangokuba kugcine kunganyathelisiwe ephepheni.”
Ukwenza Into Engabalulekile Ibonakale Ibalulekile
Izimpawu zokunyathelisa noma ukuyeka ziye zenza abacwaningi abaningi baba namasu kakhulu ekunakekeleni ukukhishwa ngobunono kwezihloko ezinyathelisiwe ngamanani aphawulekayo. Babhala isihloko esisodwa, bese besihlukanisa sibe izihlokwana ezine—ngolimi lwesayensi okubizwa ngokuthi ukuqoba isalami. Ngalendlela, esikhundleni sokunyathelisa isihloko esisodwa encwadini eyodwa, banezihloko ezine ezenezelwe ohlwini lwezincwadi zabo. Khona-ke bangase bathumele isihloko esifanayo emaphephabhukwini ahlukahlukene, futhi isikhathi ngasinye esinyatheliswa ngaso, siphinde sibalwe ohlwini. Ngokuvamile, isihloko esisodwa singase sibonise ososayensi abahlukahlukene njengabalobi, futhi umlobi ngamunye wenezela isihloko ohlwini lwakhe lwezihloko esezinyathelisiwe. Isihloko esinamakhasi amabili noma amathathu singase sibonise abalobi abayi-6, 8, 10, 12 noma ngaphezulu.
Ohlelweni lweNOVA olwasakazwa kuthelevishini ngo-October 25, 1988, olwalunesihloko esithi “Ingabe Ososayensi Bayakhohlisa?” omunye usosayensi wakhuluma ngalomkhuba: “Abantu bazama ukwenza ukuba amagama abo atholakale ezincwadini eziningi ngangokunokwenzeka, kangangokuthi ngokuvame kakhulu manje uthola amaqembu amakhulu lapho bonke abantu abayi-16 besayina igama labo encwadini ethile, ngokunokwenzeka eyayingakufanele ukunyatheliswa kwasekuqaleni. Kodwa lena ingxenye yohlobo lokubhuduzela, ukuncintisana, isimo esibi sengqondo sokulwela inani elikhulu lezincwadi okukhuthazwa ngempela isimo sesayensi eUnited States namuhla.” Abanye abafakwe ohlwini njengabalobi ababambisene kungase kwenzeke baye benza okuncane kakhulu ngalesosihloko, kungenzeka abasifundanga ngisho nokusifunda, nokho banezele lesosihloko ohlwini lwezincwadi zabo. Izinhlu ezinkulu kakhulu ezinjalo zithonya ukuvunywa kwezicelo zokwenza ukucwaninga okuhilela amakhulu ezinkulungwane zamarandi ezimali zomphakathi.
Ukubukezwa Kwangaphambi Kokukhishwa, Ingabe Kuyisivikelo Ngokumelene Nokukhohlisa?
Ngokuvamile—kodwa hhayi njalo—abahleli bamaphephabhuku esayensi badlulisela amaphepha kwabanye ososayensi ukuze bawabukeze ngaphambi kokuba bawanyathelise. Lomkhuba, obizwa ngokuthi ukubukezwa kwangaphambi kokukhishwa, kucatshangelwa ukuthi ususa izihloko ezingalungile nezikhohlisayo. UIsaac Asimov uthi: “Isayensi iyazilungisa amaphutha ngendlela okungekho ngisho nowodwa umkhakha womzamo wamandla engqondo ongafana nayo. Isayensi iyazigada ngendlela okungekho ngisho nowodwa umkhakha ongenza kanjalo.” Wamangala ngokuthi “ukwephula umthetho kuyethukela kakhulu.”
Kodwa abanye abaningi abahambisani nalombono. Ukubukezwa kwangaphambi kokukhishwa ‘kuyindlela engalandeli izindinganiso zokuziphatha yokubona ukukhohlisa,’ kwasho uDkt. Drummond Rennie ocashunwe ngaphambili. IAmerican Medical News yathi: “Amaphephabhuku abukezwe ngaphambi kokuba akhishwe, ake athathwa cishe njengangenaphutha, kuye kwadingeka ukuba avume ukuthi ayahluleka ukususa ukukhohlisa.” “Ukubukezwa kwangaphambi kokukhishwa kuye kwabiza kakhulu,” kwasho umlobi ophathelene nezokwelapha nowumhleli weNew York Times.
Iphephabhuku iScience libika ukuthi omunye umcwaningi owabelwa umsebenzi wokubukeza iphepha lomunye umcwaningi wabekwa icala lokweba lokho kwaziswa. “Wathatha ukwaziswa ephepheni ayelibukeze ngaphambi kokuba linyatheliswe futhi wakusebenzisela umsebenzi wakhe siqu,” ngokweNIH (IMikhandlu Yenhlangano Yesizwe Yezempilo). Ukuziphatha okunjalo “kuwukwephulwa kwethemba okumelwe libe sekujuleni kwenqubo yokubukezwa kwangaphambi kokukhishwa,” futhi kulendaba ngokukhethekile, umbukezi ubhekwa “njengongakufanelekele ukusekelwa uhulumeni ngokwezimali esikhathini esizayo.”
“Umphakathi wesayensi ubuphumelela ngendlela engalawuleki ekusekeleni ngamandla ukuzisholo kwawo kokuba msulwa ezindinganisweni zokuziphatha,” kwasho umagazini iNew Scientist. Abaningi banomuzwa wokuthi inqubo yokubukezwa kwangaphambi kokukhishwa okucatshangelwa ukuthi idalula konke ukukhohlisa iwumbhedo. INew Scientist yathi, “iqiniso liwukuthi izichwensi ezingenalusizo ezingokwesayensi ziyabanjwa, kodwa lapho zibanjwa kutholakala ukuthi bezilokhu ziyizixhwanguxhwangu ezingokwesayensi iminyaka eminingi, zinyathelisa ukwaziswa okuyinkohliso emaphephabhukwini ahloniphekile, futhi zingabuzwa mibuzo.”
Ngaphambili, isikhulu seNIH njengoba kubikwe kuyiNew York Times sathi: “Ngicabanga ukuthi isikhathi sokwethembeka siphelile. Esikhathini esidlule abantu babecabanga ukuthi ososayensi abakwenzi okunjengalokhu. Kodwa abantu baqala ukuqaphela ukuthi ososayensi abedluli muntu ngokuziphatha.” Umbiko weTimes wenezela: “Nakuba eminyakeni embalwa edlule kwakungavamile ngeMikhandlu Yenhlangano Yesizwe Yezempilo ukwamukela isikhalazo esisodwa ngonyaka sokubekwa icala lokukhohlisa, wathi manje kukhona okungenani ukumangalelwa okubili okungathi sína inyanga ngayinye.” Umagazini iScience waphawula: “Ososayensi baye baqinisekisa umphakathi ngokuphindaphindiwe ukuthi ukukhohlisa nokonakala ekucwaningeni akuvamile ukwenzeka . . . Kodwa amacala amakhulu abonakala eqhubeka evela.”
Ngesinye isikhathi usihlalo welinye lamakomiti ombutho acwaningayo, uJohn Dingell, wake wathi kososayensi: “Ngizonitshela ukuthi ngithola ukulandelelwa kwenqubo yomthetho elawulayo yamandla angokwesayensi kungenele ngokungenathemba nokuthi ukungabi namthetho kubonakala kunqoba ukulunga ezenzakalweni eziningi ngendlela engiyithola ingamukeleki ngokuphelele. Ngethemba ukuthi nani niyakubona lokho.”
Inqubo yeNOVA ngaphansi kwesihloko esithi “Ingabe Ososayensi Bayakhohlisa?” yaphetha ngalokhu kusabela komunye wososayensi ababekhona: “Amathambo abantu abafile kumelwe avele obala, izikhulu ezisezikhundleni eziphakeme kumelwe zehliswe uma kufanele kwenziwe kanjalo’ futhi ayikho enye indlela. Lokhu kuyadingeka ngokuvumelana nezindinganiso, lokhu kuyadingeka ngokomthetho, futhi kuyadingeka ngempela ngokokuziphatha.”
[Amazwi acashunwe esihlokweni ekhasini 6]
“Bonke abantu abayishumi nesithupha basayina amagama abo encwadini ethile”
[Amazwi acashunwe esihlokweni ekhasini 7]
“Lokhu kuyadingeka ngokuvumelana nezindinganiso, lokhu kuyadingeka ngokomthetho, futhi kuyadingeka ngempela ngokokuziphatha”