Ingxenye 4

Isayensi—Ukufuna Kwesintu Iqiniso Okuqhubekayo

Ukuvuselelwa Kwesayensi Ngenguquko

UKUXOKOZELA kwagadla izwe phakathi nengxenye yesibili yekhulu le-18 leminyaka njengoba izinguquko zashintsha isimo sezwe sezombangazwe, okokuqala eMelika, kwase kuba seFrance. Ngesikhathi esifanayo, eNgilandi kwaqalisa uhlobo oluhlukile lwenguquko, inguquko yezezimboni. Yayiphathelene kakhulu nolunye uhlobo lwenguquko, inguquko engokwesayensi.

Abanye bakhomba usuku lokuzalwa kabusha kwesayensi kusukela ngawo-1540, lapho isazi sezinkanyezi namaplanethi sasePoland uNicolaus Copernicus nesazi sesayensi yokwakheka komzimba saseBelgium u-Andreas Vesalius bekhipha izincwadi ezawuthonya ngokunamandla umqondo ongokwesayensi. Abanye lolushintsho balukhomba ngaphambidlana, ngo-1452, lapho uLeonardo da Vinci ayezalwa. Owayenza ukuhlola ngokuphikelelayo, owaba neqhaza elikhulu ekunikeleni okungokwesayensi, uLeonardo wakha imiqondo kwezinye izimo eyayiyiziqalo zokusungula okwaqinisekiswa emakhulwini amaningi eminyaka kamuva, njengendiza, inqola yezempi, ne-parachute.

Uprofesa osesikhundleni osathatha umhlala-phansi eYunivesithi yaseColumbia, u-Ernest Nagel uthi kodwa isayensi njengoba siyazi “ayizange imiswe ngokuqinile njengomkhakha oqhubekayo emphakathini waseNtshonalanga kwaze kwaba sekhulwini leshumi nesikhombisa neleshumi nesishiyagalombili.” Kwathi ingamiswa, inkathi yenguquko enkulu emlandweni womuntu yase ifinyelelwe. Incwadi i-Scientist iyaphawula: “Uma silinganisela, phakathi kuka-1590 no-1690 inkindlane yawongqondo-ngqondo . . . yaveza ukuchuma kokucwaninga okwakungenakulinganiswa nanoma iyiphi enye inkathi yeminyaka eyikhulu.”

Izimfundiso-ze Zifiphaza Indlela

Ezesayensi mbumbulu zachuma futhi, njengezimfundiso-ze imibono yazo enganembile eyavimbela intuthuko yangempela engokwesayensi. Imfundiso ye-phlogiston yayingeminye yalezi. Elithi “phlogiston,” elisuselwa kwelesiGreki, lisho “okushisiwe.” Lasungulwa ngo-1702 uGeorge Ernst Stahl, owayekholelwa ukuthi i-phlogiston yayikhululwa lapho izinto ezivuthayo zishiswa. Wacabanga ngayo njengesimiso kunanjengento engokoqobo, kodwa inkolelo yokuthi yayiyinto engokoqobo yakhula ngokuhamba kweminyaka. Kwakuphakathi no-1770 no-1790 kuphela lapho u-Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier akwazi khona ukulahla lombono.

I-Book of Popular Science iyavuma ukuthi nakuba imfundiso ye-phlogiston “yayiyiphutha ngokuphelele, kodwa okwesikhashana esithile yanikeza umqondo owachaza ngokusobala izinto eziningi ezingokwemvelo. Yayimane nje ingeminye yemiqondo eminingi engokwesayensi eyayibekwe esikalini kodwa yatholakala intula ngokuhamba kweminyaka.”

I-alchemy yayingenye imfundiso-ze. I-Harrap’s Illustrated Dictionary of Science iyichaza ngokuthi “ingxube yefilosofi, umlingo nobuchwepheshe bezamakhemikhali, eyaqala ngaphambi kwenkathi yobuKristu, ifuna ngezindlela ezihlukahlukene ukuguqulwa kwezinsimbi ezivamile zibe igolide, ukunwetshwa kokuphila nemfihlo yokungafi.” Ngaphambi kokuba yenqatshwe, i-alchemy yasiza ekubekeni isisekelo sesayensi yokuthakwa kwemithi yosuku lwanamuhla, ushintsho olwaqedwa ngasekupheleni kwekhulu le-17.

Ngakho nakuba zaziyizimfundiso-ze, i-phlogiston ne-alchemy zazinezici ezithile eziwusizo. Nokho, akuzange kube njalo ngezimfundiso-ze zabantu okwathi ngenxa yentshiseko engokwenkolo zaphoqelela izimo zengqondo ezingezona ezingokwesayensi. Ukuvukelana phakathi kwesayensi nemfundiso yenkolo—kokubili kuzisholo ukuthi kuwukuphela kwegunya elinganikeza izimpendulo emibuzweni ephathelene nendawo yonke—ngokuvamile kuye kwaholela ezimpikiswaneni ezisobala.

Ngokwesibonelo, ekhulwini lesibili C.E., isazi sezinkanyezi namaplanethi esidumile uPtolemy sasungula imfundiso ye-geocentric, okusho ukuthi lapho amaplanethi ezungeza isiyingi, indawo ephakathi yalesiyingi, ebizwa ngokuthi i-epicycle, nayo futhi ihamba ijikeleze esinye isiyingi. Kwakuwubuhlakani obusezingeni eliphezulu besayensi yezibalo futhi babuyincazelo yokuhamba okusobala kwelanga, inyanga, amaplanethi, nezinkanyezi esibhakabhakeni, okwakwamukelwa kabanzi kwaze kwaba ikhulu le-16.

UCopernicus (1473-1543) wasungula umbono ohlukile. Wayekholelwa ukuthi nakuba amaplanethi, kuhlanganise nomhlaba, ezungeza ilanga, ilanga alihambi. Lombono—wokuthi umhlaba ohambayo awuseyona indawo ephakathi yendawo yonke—uma wawuyiqiniso, wawuyoba nemiphumela efinyelela kude. Esikhathini esingaphansi kweminyaka eyikhulu kamuva, isazi sesayensi yezinkanyezi namaplanethi sase-Italy uGalileo Galilei, esebenzisa izibonakude wenza ukuhlola okwamqinisekisa ukuthi umqondo kaCopernicus womhlaba ozungeza ilanga wawuyiqiniso ngempela. Kodwa iSonto lamaKatolika layenqaba imibono kaGalileo njengewubumbuka futhi lamphoqelela ukuba ahoxe.

Amaphutha angokwenkolo ayebangele izazi zesonto zemfundiso yenkolo ukuba ziphike iqiniso elingokwesayensi. Isonto alizange likususe ukumangalela kwalo uGalileo kwaze kwaba seminyakeni ecishe ibe ngu-360 kamuva. I-Osservatore Romano, ephephandabeni layo eliphuma masonto onke lika-November 4, 1992, yalivuma “iphutha lendaba lokwahlulela” ecaleni lokumangalelwa kukaGalileo.

Izimfundiso-ze Zisekhona

Ngokufanayo, kulelikhulu lama-20, izinkolo zeLobukholwa zibonisa ukungabi nanhlonipho okufanayo ngeqiniso. Lokhu zikwenza ngokuncamela imibono engokwesayensi engaqinisekisiwe nakuba zilibona iqiniso, kokubili elingokwesayensi nelingokwenkolo. Isibonelo esihle kakhulu inkolelo engenasisekelo yokuziphendukela kwemvelo, ngokuyinhloko eyinzalo eyivezandlebe ‘yolwazi’ olungokwesayensi nezimfundiso zamanga ezingokwenkolo.a

UCharles Darwin wakhipha incwadi yakhe ethi On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection ngo-November 24, 1859. Kodwa eqinisweni umbono wokuziphendukela kwemvelo uvela ezikhathini zangaphambi kobuKristu. Ngokwesibonelo, isazi sefilosofi esingumGreki u-Aristotle sacabanga ngomuntu ebekwe phambili ohlwini oluvela ekuphileni kwesilwane okuphansi. Ekuqaleni, abefundisi bayenqaba imfundiso kaDarwin, kodwa i-Book of Popular Science iyaphawula: “Ukuziphendukela kwemvelo [kamuva] kwaba okuthile okungaphezu kombono ongokwesayensi . . . Kwaba yisiqubulo futhi ngisho nefilosofi.” Umbono wokuphumelela kwabanamandla wakhanga kubantu ababelwela ukufinyelela isikhundla esiphakeme kakhulu ekuphileni.

Ukuphikisa kwabefundisi kwafiphala ngokushesha. I-Encyclopedia of Religion ithi “imfundiso kaDarwin yokuziphendukela kwemvelo ayizange yamukelwe nje kuphela kodwa yathola ukwenanelwa okukhulu,” nokuthi “ngesikhathi sokufa kwakhe ngo-1883, abefundisi abahlakaniphe kakhulu nabavelele bafinyelela esiphethweni sokuthi ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kwakuvumelana ngokuphelele nokuqonda okukhanyiselwe kombhalo.”

Lokhu bakwenza naphezu kokuvuma okulandelayo kwencwadi ethi Book of Popular Science: “Ngisho nabasekeli abaqinile bemfundiso yokuziphendukela kwemvelo kwezinto eziphilayo kwakumelwe bavume ukuthi kwakunokunganembi okucacile namagebe emfundisweni yokuqala kaDarwin.” Nakuba ithi “kuye kwafakwa okuningi noma kwasuswa ngokuphelele emfundisweni yokuqala kaDarwin,” lencwadi ithi “ithonya lokuziphendukela kwemvelo cishe kuyo yonke imikhakha yomsebenzi womuntu liye laba likhulu kakhulu. Umlando, isayensi yokuvubukula kanye nesayensi yokuhlukaniswa kwabantu ngokohlanga kuye kwashintsha kakhulu ngenxa yalemfundiso.”

Namuhla, ososayensi abaningi abahlakaniphile bayingabaza ngokungathi sína imfundiso yokuziphendukela kwemvelo. USir Fred Hoyle, umsunguli we-Cambridge Institute of Theoretical Astronomy noyilungu elibambisene ne-American National Academy of Sciences, wabhala eminyakeni engaba yishumi edlule: “Mina ngokwami, angingabazi ukuthi izazi-mlando ezingokwesayensi zangesikhathi esizayo ziyokuthola kuyimfihlakalo ukuthi lemfundiso engabonakala ingaxazululeki yamukelwa kakhulu kangaka.”

Njengoba kugadla kuso kanye isisekelo sokuba khona komuntu, ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kuphuca uMdali okumfaneleyo. Kuhlanekezela futhi ukuzisholo kwakho kokuthi kungokwesayensi futhi akukusekeli ukufuna kwesintu iqiniso elingokwesayensi okuqhubekayo. UKarl Marx wakujabulela ukuhlanganisa ukuziphendukela kwemvelo ‘nokuphumelela kwabanamandla’ ukuze asekele ukuvelela kobuKhomanisi. Kodwa ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kuyimfundiso-ze yohlobo olwenyanyeka kakhulu.

Obani Abayizisulu?

Noma ubani odukiselwa ekukholelweni imibono engokwesayensi-mbumbulu uba yisisulu. Kodwa ngisho nokukholelwa amaqiniso angokwesayensi kuletha ingozi. Intuthuko engokwesayensi ephawulekayo ewumphumela wenguquko engokwesayensi yalahlekisela abaningi ekukholelweni ukuthi manje ayikho into eyayingenakufinyelelwa.

Lenkolelo yajuliswa njengoba intuthuko engokwesayensi yayiqhubeka nokushabalalisa isimo sengqondo esiphikisana nesayensi esasike sakhuthazwa inkolo yamanga. Ezomnotho nezombangazwe zaqala ukuqaphela isayensi njengethuluzi elinamandla lokusetshenziswa ekufinyeleleni imigomo yazo, kungakhathaliseki ukuthi imivuzo engokwezimali noma ukuqiniswa kombuso wezombangazwe.

Uma sikubeka ngokucacile, isayensi yayithuthukela kancane kancane ekubeni unkulunkulu, iveza ubusayensi. I-Webster’s Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary ichaza lokhu ‘njengokwethembela ngokweqile ethonyeni lezindlela zesayensi engokwemvelo ezisetshenziswa kuzo zonke izingxenye zokuhlola.’

Njengoba ikhulu le-19 lalisondela ekupheleni kwalo, abantu bebezibuza ukuthi kazi yini eyayiyolethwa ikhulu lama-20. Ingabe isayensi yayiyomisa “izulu langempela emhlabeni” abaningi ababeyicabangela njengekwaziyo ukukwenza? Noma ingabe izimfundiso-ze zayo zaziyoqhubeka nokusakaza inkundla yempi yenguquko ngezidumbu ezonakalisiwe zezisulu ezengeziwe? Esithi “Ukwenza ‘Izimangaliso’ Zekhulu Lama-20,” kumagazini wethu olandelayo, sizophendula.

[Umbhalo waphansi]

[Ibhokisi ekhasini 14]

Ngokucishwa Kukagesi

MUVA ngasekuqaleni kwekhulu le-19, ugesi wawubhekwa njengesici esithakazelisayo kodwa esasingasebenziseki ngokoqobo. Abantu abavela emazweni ahlukene nezizinda ezihlukahlukene, abahlanganisa uH. C. Ørsted (1777-1851), M. Faraday (1791-1867), A. Ampère (1775-1836), noB. Franklin (1706-90) bathola izinto ezibalulekile, nokho, ezabonakala ngendlela ehlukile, ngaleyondlela bebeka isisekelo sezwe lanamuhla likagesi—izwe elingenakwenza lutho ngokucishwa kukagesi.

[Izithombe ekhasini 15]

UNicolaus Copernicus

UGalileo Galilei

[Umthombo]

Photos taken from Giordano Bruno and Galilei (German edition)